Introduction to the BIble:
Understanding the Christian Scriptures
in Their Historical Context
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Introduction to the Bible
Understanding the Christian Scriptures in their
Historical Context
COPYRIGHT R. Timothy McLay
2022
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
All maps are used by permission from the Access Foundation. Photos are used by permission from R. Glenn Wooden, Kendall Kadatz, and Chris Seto.
The unexamined faith is not worth believing!
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It was originally going to be published by Hendrickson,. Although it aims was to provide the historical background and context, I also sought to explain for an evangelical there is a significant difference when it comes to matters of faith and beliefs, it did not fit the more conservative view of one reviewer who found it too challenging to his faith. I'm not sure if it is helpful to supply his exact words that reflected his inadequacy :), but willing to share if you ask.
EXAMINATION POLICY
As an examination policy, I would agree to ship to someone teaching a course for free. If adopted, then I would want $7.50 per student for up to 15 students and $5.00 per student for 16+. I can be contacted through my email: mclaytim@yahoo.com.
Preface
I have learned that writing an introductory textbook for undergraduate students and non-scholars is a task that should not be entered into lightly. It is not easy to be informative and interesting to read, but that has been my aim. Too often introductory books just offer facts or state information and do not address their subject from the perspective of the readers. Particularly when it comes to an introduction to the sacred Scriptures of a religion, in this case the Christian Bible, it is essential to provide information but also to wrestle with the material. Whether the reader has been raised in a Christian tradition, rarely attended church, or never been to church, he or she cannot escape the influence of Christianity on contemporary culture. Thus, each reader comes to this subject with a host of preconceptions and ideas that have been forged from any number of influences. Some of these notions have little or no connection to what one actually reads in the Scriptures, and many readers struggle when they encounter ideas that challenge their beliefs. In my experience, this is especially true of those who have religious backgrounds.
At the same time, I write with thirty years of experience teaching and writing in areas related to the subject matter, but also as someone with a deep appreciation for and experience with North American and British evangelicalism. The core of evangelical Christianity has been the belief in Jesus as savior who was raised from the dead. As a matter of history, this cannot be proved. In the same way, the interpretation that his death was to atone for the sin of humanity and those who confess that Jesus is Lord and believe in him will participate in the resurrection cannot be proved. The former, as a matter of history, either happened or it didn’t. The latter interpretation is based on the belief that Jesus actually was raised from the dead, and one is either a believer or not. I think Paul addresses the implications of the argument somewhere : ).
Evangelicals are the largest religious group in the United States, comprising almost 30% of the population, and number over a quarter billion globally. There is also great diversity within the movement. For example, Southern Baptists, Mennonites, Wesleyans, and the Vineyard all have unique characteristics and aspects of the faith that they emphasize. However, as a movement evangelicals share a commitment to conversion (belief in Jesus’ death as the means of salvation from sin), political and social activism, and belief in the verbal plenary inspiration of the Scriptures. These core values mean that evangelicals have a significant influence on the perception of the Bible and Christianity in popular culture as well as the way that the Bible is interpreted. For these reasons, it seems to me that an introduction should provide information about some of these issues in order to provide a more holistic approach for the reader. As my own contribution to this discussion I think that evangelicalism is better served by a focus on Jesus because the Christian faith stands or falls, as does the fate of the believer, on the historicity of Jesus’ resurrection.
The final product is meant to be informative about the historical origins of the Scriptures as well as about contemporary Christian culture. The inserts throughout the text as well as the questions for each chapter should help in the process of thinking about the text. Finally, I have included hyper-links so you can easily navigate throughout the volume, as well as external linnks that will take you to additional pictures and information. I apologize if some links no longer work over-time. By publishing independently and as an ebook, learners get a great product at a fantastic price.
In order to make this text the most useful for students it seemed beneficial to provide as many examples from primary sources as possible. Quotations of passages are reasonably short, but long enough so that the beginning student gets a feel for the texts. I have relied on standard translations that are widely available so that students can pursue further research with relative ease. Quotations from the English translations of Scriptures are normally based on the New Revised Standard Version (NRSV), though I have made occasional adjustments, and in a few cases I use the Revised Standard Version (RSV). Quotations from the Greek Jewish Scriptures (commonly known as the Septuagint) are normally from the New English Translation of the Septuagint (NETS).
I am not sure whether many readers bother reading the list of thanks, but this volume would never have been completed without the contributions of numerous people. The book includes a number of maps that I have been allowed to use by Zaine Ridling and the Access Foundation. The foundation has a lot of useful material that is freely available on their website, so I encourage students to check it out. I must thank former undergraduate students Kendall Kadatz and Chris Seto for the use of their photos, as well as Dr. R. Glenn Wooden. The book would not be the same without them. I also owe a debt of gratitude to friends who read and commented on various portions of the manuscript. My good friend Dr. Bernard Taylor read a number of chapters and I benefited from his editorial expertise. Dr. Peter Davids also read the chapter on Jesus, and I thank him for his notes. A good friend and graduate student, Ry Siggelkow, read every page and helped create the index, so his efforts were invaluable. Another senior student, EJ Zufelt, commented on several chapters and suggested a number of the questions that appear. I am also grateful for the conversations I had with three undergraduate students—Karis Taylor, Katie Mott, and KristelBoeve—who read the important section on historical criticism in chapter eleven. Last, and certainly not least, my immediate family commented on aspects of the manuscript as well. My children, Amy, Ryan, and Rachel also offered plenty of criticism and Rachel did some editing. Of course, by the time they had read any of the manuscript they were pretty familiar with the content.
Footnotes have been deliberately kept to a minimum because this is an introductory text, but the debt I owe to friends and other scholars (past and present) is evident on every page. The content has been shaped by formal and informal interactions with colleagues and students, but the final product is my responsibility. Whatever errors, omissions, or perceived inadequacies there may be are mine alone. I hope this introduction may prove to be helpful for those who desire to know more about the origins, composition, and content of the Christian Scriptures.
July 24, 2022
TimMcLay
Hyper-linked Table of Contents
Preface
Table of Contents
Introducing the Story of the Bible
*The Goal of this Text
*Historical Approach
*Introductory in Scope
*The Subject Matter is the Contents and Composition of the Scriptures
*The Scriptures
*What to Expect
Summary
Chapter 1
Opening Your Bible . . . or is it Bibles?
*Our English Bible is a Translation
*What Do You Find in Your Bible?
*Which Translation Should You Use?
*The Bible as Literature
Summary
Additional Resources
Chapter Two
The First Five Books of the Hebrew Scriptures
*Brief Summary of the Pentateuch
* Genesis 1-11 The story of humanity’s origins
*Genesis 12-50 The promises to the patriarchs
The religion of the patriarchs
The sources for the patriarchal stories
* Exodus 1-18 Deliverance from slavery
*History and the biblical narratives
* Exodus 19-40 Establishing a code of conduct
* Leviticus Sacrifices and yet more laws
*Numbers Wilderness wanderings
*Deuteronomy 1-32 The law in the land
* Deuteronomy 32-34 Moses’ farewell
Summary
Content Questions
Analytical or Discussion Questions
Additional Resources
Chapter Three
The Early Prophets of the Hebrew Scriptures
*Introduction to the Early Prophets
*Joshua The divine warrior and dividing the spoils
*Judges Everyone does what is right in their own eyes
*1 Samuel 1−15 The beginning of the monarchy and Saul, the first king
*1 Samuel 16−1 Kings 2 The reign of David
*1 Kings 2−11 Solomon
*I Kings 12−2 Kings 24 The divided kingdom
Summary
Content Questions
Analytical or Discussion Questions
Additional Resources
Chapter Four
The Later Prophets of the Hebrew Scriptures
*Introduction to the Later Prophets
*The Nature of the Prophetic Literature
*Amos and Hosea The Day of the Lord is coming!
*Isaiah Assyria is a threat but God is with us
*Micah, Nahum and Zephaniah The decline of Assyria
*Jeremiah Doom and gloom for Judah
*Habakkuk and Obadiah The end of Jerusalem
*Ezekiel Encouragement for the exiles
*Haggai and Zechariah Rebuilding hope
*Joel, Jonah, and Malachi
Summary
Content Questions
Analytical or Discussion Questions
Additional Resources
Chapter Five: The Writings of the Hebrew Scriptures
*Historiography Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles
*Liturgy Psalms and Lamentations
*Wisdom Literature Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Job
*Romance Literature Ruth, Esther, Song of Songs
*Apocalypse Daniel
Summary
Content Questions
Discussion or Analytical Questions
Additional Resources
Chapter Six: The Greek Jewish Scriptures
*The Historical Background to the Rise of the Greek Language and Culture
*Introduction to the Jewish Scriptures in the Greek language
*The Greek Jewish Scriptures and the Catholic Bible
*The Differences Between the Hebrew and Greek Jewish Scriptures
*Later Revisions of the Greek Scriptures
*Books of the Greek Jewish Scriptures included in the Catholic Canon
Summary
Content Questions
Analytical or Discussion Questions
Additional Resources
Chapter Seven: The Dead Sea Scrolls
*Using the Dead Sea Scrolls to Reconstruct an Historical Picture
*The Identity of the Dead Sea Sect
*The Writings of the Dead Sea Sect
*Understanding the Dead Sea Sect
*The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Origin of the Scriptures
Summary
Content Questions
Analytical or Discussion Questions
Additional Resources
Chapter Eight: Other Jewish Writings
*The Types (or Genres) of the Jewish non-biblical Writings
*Apocalypses
*Rewritten Scriptures and Legends
*Testaments
*Wisdom and Philosophical Literature
*Liturgical Works
*The Pseudepigrapha and the New Testament
*Second Temple Judaism
Summary
Content Questions
Analytical or Discussion Questions
Additional Resources
Chapter Nine: Jesus and the Gospels
* The Historical and Political Environment at the beginning of the Common Era
*Introduction to the Gospels
*Discovering the historical Jesus within the Gospels
*Mark Jesus the son of God
*Matthew Jesus is the Messiah
*Luke Jesus the savior of all humanity
*John Jesus the revelation of God
Summary
Content Questions
Analytical or Discussion Questions
Additional Resources
Chapter Ten
Paul the Apostle to the Gentiles
*Paul’s Historical Context
*Dating Paul’s Letters
*What is Pauline Theology?
*Paul and Judaism
*Other Teachings by Paul
*Galatians People can be foolish!
*1 Thessalonians Don’t fear the reaper!
*1 Corinthians People can drive you crazy!
*2 Corinthians Ministry involves sacrifice
*Romans Good news is powerful
*Philippians People are great!
*Philemon A personal plea
Summary
Content Questions
Analytical or Discussion Questions
Additional Resources
Chapter Eleven
The Pauline Tradition
*Historical Criticism and the Scriptures
*Pseudonymous Writings
*Acts the unhindered gospel
*The Deutero-Pauline letters Ephesians and Colossians, 2 Thessalonians
*The Pastoral Epistles 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy and Titus
Summary
Content Questions
Analytical or Discussion Questions
Additional Resources
Chapter Twelve
The Rest of the New Testament
and the End of Time
*The Apostolic Fathers
*Other Scriptures
*The Development of Orthodoxy
*The Development of the Canon
*Hebrews Christianity is the better way
*The Catholic Letters James 1 Peter, 2 Peter, 1 John, 2 John, 3 John, Jude
James
1 Peter
2 Peter
1 John
2 and 3 John
Jude
*The Revelation of John God has everything under control
Summary
Content Questions
Analytical or Discussion Questions
Additional Resources
Glossary of Terms
Introducing the Story of the Bible
What you will find in this chapter
*The Goal of this Text
*Historical Approach
*Introductory in Scope
*The Subject Matter is the Contents and Composition of the Scriptures
*What to Expect
Most students who enter the classroom for a first year introductory class on the Bible are not all that concerned about the content of the course. After all, it’s the Bible! Many of these students have attended church while growing up and many of those may have developed the habit of reading it devotionally on a regular basis. Others are interested in knowing more about the Bible because they are not sure whether they can trust some of the things that they have been told, or are unsure about the way that the Bible is portrayed in movies and books. Still others may just need academic credit and have heard that the class is fun, or maybe it fits their schedule better than some of the other options. Finally, there are those for whom this is a required course at a university that maintains a longstanding affiliation with their Christian denomination.
Like any introductory class, however, there is much to learn that is new, challenging, and—hopefully—exciting, and interesting. Biblical scholars who spend their professional lives studying and teaching about the Bible are well aware that an academic approach to studying the Bible can be a fascinating adventure, but it is also true that there are numerous potential pitfalls and snares.
First, there are problems defining and discussing the terms that we use. For example, though it seems fairly straightforward to refer to the Bible, an important question is, “What do we mean by the Bible?” Are we referring more narrowly to the Christian Bible? But in that case do we mean the one used by Protestants or by Roman Catholics? What about the sacred writings read by Jewish people? Does that count as a Bible, even though it does not include the New Testament? And, is it appropriate to refer to the Old Testament when for Jews the same writings are their Bible? If the Bible is the word of God, why do we even have different Bibles? We already have lots of questions and we have not even begun to consider whether there is a difference between the Bible and Scripture.
The second area of concern is discussing issues about the origin and interpretation of the Bible when there is so much misinformation about it that is part of both popular culture and Christian culture. There is a wide range of ideas and views about the Bible and their influence on western culture, and North America in particular, that cannot be underestimated. Unfortunately, many of the kookiest notions are not even widely believed by Christians, and the dumbest claims are usually the ones that receive the most attention. For example, while waiting in the aisle of the local supermarket the other day one tabloid warned, “Last Days Prophecies: World Ends Sooner than You Think!” The idea that the world will end soon is the focus of a very influential stream of North American Christianity, and is popularized in books and movies that spread fear that you may be “left behind,” but these views are not held by all Christians or even the majority. Hollywood has played no small role in promoting all kinds of fantasy and nonsense about the Bible in movies and television shows (for example, about subjects like Armageddon, angels, and the devil), but their motive is entertainment and profit. Others have heard about the mysterious Dead Sea Scrolls and wonder what they are and what they have to do with the Bible. Do they predict the end of the world? Is there a rival to Jesus?
Although popular culture can contribute to misguided notions about the Bible, in many cases those who produce the movies or use the biblical themes in music and literature—often in a satirical manner—are only mirroring what they believe or understand based on what they were taught. Who can fault them for the emphasis and some¬times grotesque portrayals of end times in popular movies when they are so prominent in many Christian book stores?
A third general area where we encounter problems is in communicating information about the contents of the Bible and how it came to be in the form in which we now possess it. On the one hand, this is a problem because there are different opinions among biblical scholars about both significant and not so significant issues. And, scholars do not always even agree about what issues should be thought of as significant! On the other hand, there is the difficulty of communicating new concepts at a level that can be easily grasped by the beginning student.
Finally, one of the most challenging aspects of studying the Bible for some people is the fear that it will undermine their faith. For some, reading the Bible is a “spiritual” exercise that should not be undermined by intellectual pursuits. Many people have been taught to read and understand the Bible in a particular way and find it difficult if someone suggests an alternative approach.
There is no easy way to resolve the tensions and questions that may arise as one encounters new ideas and beliefs that are foreign to one’s worldview. However, it has been my experience that the dialogue that takes place within and outside the classroom helps immeasurably in the learning process. Most students discover that the black-and-white answers that they received during Sunday School about the Bible are insufficient to explain the phenomena they encounter when they actually read the biblical text. Like the characters in the movie Pleasantville, their lives are transformed by knowledge and experience so that life becomes a complexity of colors that cannot be tamed with simple solutions. Regardless of the answers, the struggle and tension are worth the risk and students (as well as lay people) are often surprised to discover that critical thinking about the Scriptures need not be equated with unbelief. To paraphrase the philosopher Socrates: “The unexamined faith is not worth believing!”
Notwithstanding the general lack of substantive knowledge about the contents of the Bible and its history, it is amazing how people can become so entrenched in their views on these very same matters. I am sure that you have already been part of many conversations in which people have stated in absolute terms what the Bible does or does not teach. That people often staunchly defend what they believe regarding the Bible speaks volumes about the preeminent role that it has played in western civilization. Religion and politics are the two topics that are most often banned from conversation between family and friends due to the firestorm they may generate. So, as long as we are going to engage in heated discussions about the Bible, it probably would be useful to gain a more informed insights into the subject about which we seem to know so much!
*The Goal of this Text
Although this book is written primarily as an introduction to the Bible for undergraduate students, it will hopefully find an audience among the general public, and in churches by people who are interested in learning more about this amazing piece of literature. The aim of this volume is to understand the contents and composition of the Scriptures in their historical context. I will explain briefly each of the elements of this aim in the paragraphs below. Back to TOC
*Historical Approach
I use the term historical in order to recognize that the book we know as the Bible is a historical phenomenon that is open to analysis and investigation. This can be understood in two ways. First, the Bible came to be in the form(s) that we know it today over a period of centuries. We all know that the Christian New Testament is chronologically later than the Old Testament, but it is important to realize that the writings that eventually came to be identified with both of these larger divisions within the Christian Bible also were written by different people over a long period of time. This is particularly true for the Old Testament, which begins with the story of creation in Genesis. Given the historical character of the sacred writings, it is my contention (along with most scholars) that we can better interpret the content of the individual writings by understanding the historical context and setting from which they emerged. I focus on the historical character of the Bible to help the reader grasp the historical processes that were at work in the formation of the Scriptures. In other words, my concern is not to offer an introduction that has a confessional or faith bias. The individual writings that have come to be regarded as Scripture are open to historical analysis like any other historical documents.
One of the reasons for a historical rather than a confessional approach is because each Christian tradition has adopted a particular group of sacred writings as its canon of Scripture (their Bible). Thus an introduction to Scripture written from a particular perspective may serve the doctrinal needs of the people within that tradition, but it is difficult for them to place their own beliefs within the larger historical process.
My emphasizing the historical character of the Scriptures should not be taken to mean that I fail to comprehend their religious significance. I write as a believer who worships in the Protestant tradition. However, there are two important points concerning the validity of my approach. First, by investigating the nature of the Scriptures as historical documents, certain scholars and preachers may be fearful I am neglecting (or worse, denigrating) the character of the Scriptures as divine revelation. On the contrary, it would be erroneous to assume that a historical focus automatically invalidates the possibility of divine revelation, and vice versa. In principle, historical investigation begins by examining the phenomena available, and then formulating an opinion as to how best to explain it. Second, historical analysis is incapable of rendering a judgment about the validity of the theological significance of the biblical texts or any other religious document. For example, the gospel writers are unanimous in their testimony that: (1) Jesus was buried in the tomb; (2) the tomb was found empty. Leaving aside for the moment any suggestions that the women and the disciples went to the wrong tomb or that Jesus’ body was stolen, the empty tomb in no way entails the significance that the New Testament writers give to the resurrection of Jesus. According to Paul, the theological significance of Jesus’ death and resurrection is that Jesus “died for our sins” (I Corinthians 15:3) and that “we were reconciled to God through the death of his Son” (Romans 5:10), but these conclusions are interpretations that are not subject to historical verification.
Without question, a historical examination does—or should—have implications about the way we read and interpret the Scriptures, but a more informed view of the Scriptures should only enhance our appreciation of them.
Having made these caveats about the historical approach, I acknowledge that it would hardly be possible to write a useful introduction that did not consider some contemporary ideas and beliefs about the Scriptures. As I mentioned above, North American culture is saturated with a whole host of ideas about the Bible and what it teaches, so this introduction will address some of these issues so that readers can better appreciate the way that the content of the Bible is interpreted. Sometimes an issue is raised directly in the text, but more often the questions are intended to provoke thought and integration. Back to TOC
*Introductory in Scope
The presentation assumes the breadth of historical material available to us that is relevant for the period of our investigation. However, there are two limitations to our presentation. First, we are limited in how much material to provide the reader because this is intended as an introduction to the Bible. The purpose of an introduction is to introduce the reader to the subject matter by selecting and focusing on particular areas of interest that are foundational to understanding the subject, without becoming too bogged down in details or tedious information that is best reserved for more specialized interests. Second, we are aiming to provide an introduction to the whole of the Scriptures. In biblical studies, most introductions focus on either the Old Testament/Hebrew Bible or the New Testament, so an introduction to the Bible will have to pass over discussion of some issues to maintain a reasonable size.
*The Subject Matter is the Contents and Composition of the Scriptures
Our discussion of the Scriptures provides an introduction to and a brief summary of the content of each book or group of books. A brief introduction to the literary content provides the basis for an examination of historical issues and questions that arise from the texts. It is impossible to raise all of these issues, so it is my aim to address the most important ones and to provide a broad-ranging and critical discussion of how the issues have been addressed.
One of the most important contributions of this book is to help the student understand that the Scriptures exist in an intricate network of dependent relationships. These interrelationships are at the heart of the com¬position of the Scriptures. This dependence is evident not only between the two testaments, but also between books, within individual books, and also between the versions, translations, and non-biblical books. The reason for this interdependence is that the Scriptures served not only to define the past for the Jewish community, but they were the foundation for reinterpreting their experience. Thus, the Scriptures were a living embodiment of the traditions of the Jewish community. In that sense the Scriptures served as a narrative for the continuing story of the community in relationship with their God, an adapted play, if you will, because the writing of the Scriptures often involved the rereading and reapplying of previous lines to a new situation. This process of applying the Scriptures to the life of the community is discernible from the beginning of their heritage and continued right through the period of Jesus’ followers, who are credited with writing the books of the New Testament, and, in many respects, continues in the Judeo-Christian tradition today. This concept will become clearer as the reader proceeds through the volume.
It is worth emphasizing and expanding the point in the preceding paragraph that much of the Scriptures were composed as narrative or story. There are two reasons for this. First, we often overlook the power of narrative to communicate truth. Stories and traditions are interwoven into the fabric of our lives. From stories about our parents and grandparents to the stories that frame a nation (George Washington would never have told a lie), stories have a powerful impact on our way of interpreting and living in the world (our worldview). Such truths that we have learned from the stories that we have read or heard are far more influential on the way that we live than the bare stories themselves and have more impact than simple statements. For example, reading Les Miserables has a far greater impact for teaching the power of forgiveness than telling someone that we should forgive those who hurt us.
Second, the fact that much of the Scriptures consist of narrative raises questions about the way they are to be read. Stories by nature include description, and, since the Scriptures are understood to be authoritative within the Christian tradition (even to some degree by some who would not identify themselves as religious), readers of the Scriptures may experience a tension between the history in the narrative and the story that is being told. Scholars describe this tension as history vs. theology (what is believed), and there are no easy ways to distinguish the two. However, just as stories communicate truth more powerfully than dry statements, so theology can never be encapsulated by history. Back to TOC
*The Scriptures
Until now I have employed the terms Bible and Scripture somewhat interchangeably, and in a sense they are. However, there is also a significant distinction between the two terms. What we understand by the terms Scripture and Bible is easily confused in our contemporary context because what we acknowledge as authoritative Scripture (whatever the faith tradition) is included within a recognized Bible (another term for the Bible is the canon). Thus, the concept of a completed canon or Bible presupposes the existence of Scripture(s), and that is how these terms should be understood historically. Initially, a faith community deems some particular writings to be Scripture, which affirms that those writings are recognized to be authoritative for the faith and practice of the community. Canon, however, denotes a specific listing and order of books that are the authoritative books for a particular faith community. Thus, by definition the creation of a canon requires that it is a later historical development and that it imposes limits on what books are recognized as Scripture.
The fact that Scripture precedes canon has important ramifications for our study. In order to understand the story of the Bible, we have to investigate the history of the Scriptures that only later came to be part of a Bible. Therefore, the content of the Scriptures (as explained above) is not necessarily equivalent to the contents of our Bible. It was not until long after the writing of the New Testament that we can speak of an actual Bible or canon. Thus, from the outset, we should be open to the possibility that there were Scriptures that never made the grade when it came to determining what would become canon for the worshipping community. This observation may also help us to understand why it is that we have different Bibles.
*What to Expect
In keeping with the aim to offer a historical overview of the writing of the Bible the approach will be broadly chronological. The reason it must be qualified as “broadly chronological” is the frequent overlap between the times and places that are relevant to our understanding of the Scriptures. Although there are other ways that one could present the material, roughly speaking it can be broken down into three periods: (1) the Ancient Scriptures in Hebrew and Greek; (2) the Scriptures in the Intertestamental Period, which includes the Dead Sea Scrolls; and (3) the Scriptures of the Early Church. In the final chapter we provide a brief introduction to the early Christian non-biblical writings and the formation of the Canon. Some scholars would disagree with my combining the Hebrew and the Greek Scriptures together in the first category; but I believe, and will demonstrate, that they are linked quite closely when it comes to understanding the historical development of the Scriptures. The examination will take the books of the law from the Hebrew Scriptures as its initial point of departure. Through the course of the presentation, the aim is to give the reader a nuanced and balanced understanding of the development of the Scriptures. The first chapter offers an introduction to reading the Bible, as well as initiating our examination of its historical character.
Chapters contain inserts titled Further Reflections, which have questions or insights designed to stimulate thought; and other boxes consist of Additional Information, which offer helpful material in a concise form. Each chapter concludes with a Summary, and a select listing of Additional Resources to facilitate further reading. I have taken advantage of the online publishing format to include numerous links to pictures and information that otherwise would be unavailable in a printed format. The CD includes a variety of questions useful to a teacher or a group for discussion, and additional material that includes texts, pictures, and maps. Other internet sources are provided as resources; but due to the uncertainty of what will or will not remain at a web address, I have limited their number. The internet can be a great aid to research, but one must exercise care and discrimination in the use of internet sources (particularly for essays!). After all, any Dick or Jane can purport to be an expert on any subject they choose.
Let the story begin.
Summary
1. The study of the Bible may be challenging for four reasons: becoming familiar with new terms; preconceptions about the Bible that have been absorbed from culture; understanding academic concerns in the study of the Scriptures; and, finally, the fear that one’s faith might be undermined.
2. This chapter introduced the aim of this volume, which is to provide a historical introduction to the contents and composition of the Scriptures.
Back to TOC
Chapter 1
Opening Your Bible . . . or is it Bibles?
What you will find in this chapter
*Our English Bible is a Translation
*What Do You Find in Your Bible?
*Which Translation Should You Use?
*The Bible as Literature
Most people take a Bible for granted. It gathers dust on a bookshelf or coffee table at home. A Bible is in the nightstand when you stay at a hotel. While many of us have been told that it is “God’s word” or something similar for many years, we have not stopped to ask what that statement means. In any case, we are not too concerned about where it came from or how we got the particular Bible that sits on our desk, unless it was a gift for confirmation, graduation, or some other celebration. We may not even be certain about the actual contents of the Bible. I recall as if it were yesterday a conversation that I had with a person years ago who insisted that the book that they held in their hands was the Bible, so everything within its covers must be authoritative. It took a while for me to explain that some of the information had been included as helpful information by the publishers of the volume and was not, therefore, actual Scripture or part of the Bible. Due to the kind of confusion that can occur when we begin the study of an unfamiliar subject, the objective in this chapter is to provide some basic user information for reading an English Bible for those who are new to the subject.
*Our English Bible is a Translation
All Bibles in the English language are translations from ancient languages. In the Christian tradition the books of the New Testament are translations from Greek. There are 27 books in the New Testament. The translation of the Old Testament books is based primarily on the text of the Hebrew Bible that is accepted as authoritative by Jewish people. Their Scriptures were written primarily in Hebrew, though parts of Daniel and Ezra are in Aramaic. For Catholics there are also additional deutero-canonical books and additions to books (Daniel and Esther) in the Old Testament that are accepted as inspired in the same way as the books of the
The Contents of Different Bibles or Canons
There are 24 books in the Hebrew Bible, 39 in the Protestant Old testament, and 46 in the Roman Catholic Old Testament. The content of the Hebrew Bible and the Protestant Old Testament is basically the same, even though the total number of books differs. There are three reasons why the lists are different between the Hebrew Bible and the Protestant: 1) the books are arranged in a different order; 2) some books that are counted as one in the Hebrew Bible are counted as two (Kings, Samuel, Chronicles, and Ezra-Nehemiah); 3) the twelve Minor Prophets are counted as one book. The deutero-canonical books of the Catholic Old Testament are distinguished from the others by underlining.
Hebrew Bible Old Testament (Protestant) Old Testament (Catholic)
Law (5) Law (5) Law (5)
Genesis Genesis Genesis
Exodus Exodus Exodus
Leviticus Leviticus Leviticus
Numbers Numbers Numbers
Deuteronomy Deuteronomy Deuteronomy
Prophets (4) Former History (12) History (16)
Joshua Joshua Joshua
Judges Judges Judges
Ruth Ruth
Samuel (1 and 2) I Samuel I Samuel
2 Samuel 2 Samuel
Kings (1 and 2) 1 Kings 1 Kings
Prophets (4) Latter 2 Kings 2 Kings
Isaiah 1 Chronicles 1 Chronicles
Jeremiah 2 Chronicles 2 Chronicles
Ezekiel Ezra Ezra
The Twelve Prophets Nehemiah Nehemiah
Hosea Tobit
Joel Judith
Amos Esther Esther + additions
Obadiah 1 Maccabees
Jonah 2 Maccabees
Micah
Nahum
Habakkuk
Zephaniah
Haggai
Zechariah
Malachi
Writings (11) Poetry/Wisdom (5) Poetry/Wisdom (7)
Psalms Job Job
Proverbs Psalms Psalms
Job Proverbs Proverbs
Song of Songs Ecclesiastes Ecclesiastes
Ruth Song of Songs Song of Songs
Lamentations Wisdom of Solomon
Ecclesiastes Ecclesiasticus
Esther
Daniel Prophets (17) Prophets (18)
Ezra-Nehemiah Isaiah Isaiah
Chronicles Jeremiah Jeremiah
Lamentations Lamentations
Baruch + Letter of Jeremiah
Ezekiel Ezekiel
Daniel Daniel
+ additions
The Twelve Prophets The Twelve Prophets
(same as the Hebrew) (same as the Hebrew)
Totals
24 Books 39 Books 46 Books
+2 additions
Figure 1.1
Hebrew Bible. Some of these were originally written in Hebrew, but most of them are now known primarily in Greek. The other deutero-canonical books are: Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, the Letter of Jeremiah, and 1-2 Maccabees. In the Protestant tradition these books are normally referred to as apocryphal books.
Although the content of the books of the Hebrew Bible and the Protestant Old Testament are the same, they are arranged and numbered differently. The Hebrew Bible has three sections: Law, Prophets, and Writings; while the Protestant and Catholic Bible is arranged under four: Law, History, Poetry or Wisdom, and Prophecy. One of the significant differences between them is that Daniel is included within the Writings of the Hebrew Bible, but in the Old Testament it is counted among the Prophets. Compare the listing of the books in Figure 1.1. Even though this volume is written as an introduction to the Christian Bible, I will normally refer to the Hebrew or Jewish Scriptures rather than the Old Testament in order to respect the various traditions and understandings of the canon. It also means when we come to discuss the ancient Greek translations of the Hebrew Scriptures that we will be able to refer to them accurately as the Greek Jewish Scriptures.
If we included other traditions in our survey we would find even more differences. For example, the Greek Orthodox Old Testament has the same books as the Catholic Old Testament plus it includes I Esdras, which is similar to a condensed version of Ezra and Nehemiah, 3 Maccabees, and the Prayer of Manasseh. So, even though you may have owned the same Bible since you were a child, the Bible that you have always known may be very different from the one sitting on your roommate’s desk. A Protestant might wonder why the Catholics have “added” books to the Bible, while a Catholic may well question the motivation Protestants have for “omitting” books. As we continue through this volume, you will come to understand the historical reasons why we have different Bibles. Back to TOC
*What Do You Find in Your Bible?
In addition to the books of the Bible, your basic “no-frills” Bible normally includes a table of contents with page numbers, which is helpful for the beginner, and a brief introduction to the history and purpose of that particular version. The heart of the Bible is the books that are recognized as authoritative Scripture. Each of the books is divided up into chapters and verses, which is an easy way to locate and refer to the specific contents of the books. So, by referring to the gospel of John, chapter 11, verse 35, you will find the shortest verse in the Bible, “Jesus began to weep.” In most cases we would refer to this same verse by writing John 11:35. In North America we separate the chapter and verses within a book by a colon, while European writers normally use a period. There are also fairly standard abbreviations for each of the names of the biblical books.
In case the thought had crossed your mind, there is no particular reason to explain why some verses and chapters are longer than others. In some cases the chapter divisions correspond to changes in subject matter, but this does not occur consistently. In fact, originally there were no verse numbers or chapters for any books. But get this. There was no punctuation, spaces between words, or capital letters either! Back to TOC
couldyouimaginetryingtoreadbooksthatwerewrittenthatway
When you combine the ancient way of writing with the primitive writing utensils and material that would have been used it is amazing how well they were able to copy and preserve the Scriptures. Each book of the Bible, then, originally circulated as more or less an independent document without any titles or any other additional descriptive markings. For many books of the Bible the first line (now 1:1) served as a kind of title or introduced the author and sometimes identified the intended recipient (see Isaiah 1:1 and Luke 1:1-3).
We know that scribes began to make marginal notes and provisional headings for sections within books as early as the beginnings of Christianity, but the chapter division of the books that we know today stems primarily from Stephen Langton and the first Bible with verses appeared in 1528. In most modern Bibles you will also find paragraph headings that are meant to aid the reader as well.
Beyond what you expect to find in your basic Bible there any number of additional aids that may be included to help understand it better. These include maps of the ancient world, various tables and calendars, lists of subjects, concordances that record where a particular word is found, and a small introduction to each book that may give historical information about when it was written and a brief outline of the contents. A “study Bible” includes all of the aforementioned materials as well as a running commentary on the bottom of each page on matters of content in the biblical book. These comments are meant to be helpful, but the reader should be forewarned that they reflect a particular perspective, that of the editor who is writing comments, and not all of the comments are particularly useful. (For an example of how one’s perspective influences Bible translation, and by extension the comments made by a scholar see the discussion of Isaiah 7:14 in Figure 1.3 below).
Finally, it should be noted that there are times when you are reading that you will encounter a raised letter in the text that has a corresponding footnote at the bottom of the page. These are various types of textual notes (We introduce Textual Criticism in chapter five) to inform the reader why the translator/editor of the book has translated a passage a certain way. Unfortunately, the majority of notes in contemporary Bibles are meaningless to most readers, particularly in the Old Testament, and are of little value to scholars because they are too cryptic. For example, the note to I Kings 18:1 in the NRSV states that “Heb[rew] lacks of the drought.” Thus, although the main Hebrew text does not have these words, we do not know whether the editor added these words for smoother reading, or whether they were present in another ancient authority. The most useful of these textual notes appear in the New Testament in a few places where it is noted that the verse or verses in question are not present in any early manuscript. The implication is that these verses should not, therefore, be considered scripture. For example, the words “There are three that testify in heaven, the Father, the Word, and the Holy Spirit, and these three are one. And there are three that testify on earth” in I John 5:7 have been removed and put in a footnote because these words are unknown in any manuscript prior to 1500! See also the conclusion of the gospel of Mark, where there have been different endings added after vs. 8.
*Which Translation Should You Use?
There has been a virtual explosion of English versions of the Bible in the past two decades. Although for some Christians it is still important that their version be a particular translation, in most instances it does not matter. Sometimes students or parishioners ask me, “Which version of the Bible would you recommend?”, but there is no specific answer to that question. Generally speaking, the purpose of a translation is to communicate the meaning of the message of the source language into the target language. However, factors like the vocabulary, grammar, and complexity of sentence structure that a translator chooses has a significant impact on who will be able to understand the resulting translation. So the choice of a particular version depends upon your intentions and needs. If it is for your own personal reading, then the most important consideration is how readable the version is to you.
There are a couple of differences in the types of versions and Bibles that one can buy, which can be brought to our attention. First, there is a basic difference between versions that are translations as opposed to versions that are paraphrases. For example, many people enjoy the language and expressions of a fairly new version of the Bible called The Message, by Eugene Petersen. Some of the creative use of language is due to the fact that Petersen’s volume is a paraphrase, which means that his concern is to convey the ideas of the text in a meaningful way to the reader. While additional qualifying words and phrases are freely added to a paraphrase to make the meaning clearer or to enhance its emotional appeal, a translation is bound more strictly to the words of the source text. Even in a translation there are adjustments that are necessary because of the differences between two languages, but they are minor in comparison to a paraphrase.
If you were to sit down and compare the way that several versions read at the same place you would be amazed at the differences. In addition to the distinction already noted between translations and versions, alternative expressions are explained by the flexibility of language to express things using different words. There is also another force at work, however, which brings us to the second difference between various Bibles. Whether one reads a translation or a paraphrase it is useful to know that all translation from one language into another involves interpretation. We inhabit a totally different world than the time and culture of the Biblical personages. We cannot help but be influenced by our understanding of the way things are (our worldview) or our beliefs about God and the relation of the Deity to creation (our theology) when we read the Bible, just as those who translate the Bible are influenced by their worldview and beliefs. I use the example of Isaiah 7:14 in Figure 1.3 to illustrate that it seems obvious that the translator’s theology has influenced the translation of the verse in some instances.
*The Bible as Literature Back to TOC
The story of the Bible is the story of God and the understanding of the divine involvement with the Israelites. In all that happens in the lives of the people and the events that occur, the Scriptures assume that God plays a starring role. That is not to say that the Bible provides a handbook for everything there is to know about God, though this idea is projected by some Christians, because the Judeo-Christian heritage affirms the continuing reality of God’s involvement in the human narrative. However, the fact that the biblical narrative originated so long ago means that reading the Bible can be a frustrating experience. Many people simply find it hard to identify with the biblical stories because they do not understand the culture and the setting in which the Scriptures were written or the way to read the story. It is like their literature class in high school when they were first introduced to Shakespeare. They can read some of the words, but the words are not used the same way as we speak and write now and there are obscure expressions that do not make any sense. People resort to “spiritualizing” the meaning of the Bible because they do not know how to read it. One of the most neglected, yet most important, aspects of reading the Bible with understanding is the recognition that the Bible exists not only as a piece of literature, but that the books within it reflect different types or genres of literature. We do not have the same expectation of what we read in Calvin & Hobbes as we do when we curl up with a Stephen King novel. In the same way that we read comic strips, horror, science fiction, and mysteries with a different expectation, we have to learn to appreciate the different genres in the Bible and the way that they communicate meaning. The Scriptures include such diverse genres as historiography, gospels, legal texts, poetry, apocalypses, prophecy, and personal letters. Thus, our ability to understand the Scriptures will be aided if we gain more competence in understanding the literary genres in which they were written. Our literary competence will also be helped by learning more about the historical background at the time when the various books were written. As we learn to appreciate the culture and people of the various periods during which the Scriptures were written and the ways in which they communicated their story in literary genres, it becomes easier to participate in the world of the biblical text and to understand the story. Back to TOC
Summary
1. All Bibles in the English language are translations from ancient languages.
2. The New Testament books were originally composed in Greek and number 27 in total.
3. The Old Testament books were mostly composed in Hebrew or Aramaic (parts of Daniel and Ezra). Some books that are accepted as deutero-canonical by the Catholic church were originally composed in Greek. The Hebrew Bible has 24 books, the Protestant Old Testament 39, and the Catholic Old Testament 46 plus two additions to books.
4. Originally, there were no markings at all in the Scriptures. The punctuation, chapter and verse divisions, as well as all other information about the Scriptures were added over time and are intended as aids to help the reader.
5. The most important consideration for finding a translation of the Bible is how readable the version is to you.
6. All versions and translations, as well as any accompanying study notes, are influenced by the theology of the translator.
7. Becoming competent readers of the Bible begins with understanding the literary genres in which they were written and by learning more about the historical background and cultural context from which the books of Scripture emerged. Back to TOC
Additional Resources
Fant, Clyde E., Donald W. Musser, and Mitchell G. Reddish. An Introduc-
tion to the Bible. Rev. ed. Nashville: Abingdon, 2001.
Johnson, Marshall. Making Sense of the Bible: Literary Type As an Ap
proach to Understanding. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002.
Metzger, Bruce M. The Bible in Translation: Ancient and English Versions.
Grand Rapids: Baker, 2001.
Select translations of the Bible:
New International Version. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1973.
New Jerusalm Bible. New York, NY: Doubleday, 1985.
New Revised Standard Version. New York, NY: Oxford University Press,
1989.
Today’s English Version. New York, NY: United Bible Societies, 1976.
Chapter Two
The First Five Books of the Hebrew Scriptures
What you will find in this chapter
*Brief Summary of the Pentateuch
*Genesis 1-11 The Story of humanity’s origins
*Genesis 12-50 The promises to the patriarchs
*Exodus 1-18 Deliverance from slavery
*Exodus 19-40 Establishing a code of conduct
*Leviticus Sacrifices and yet more laws
*Numbers Wilderness wanderings
*Deuteronomy 1-31 The law in the land
*Deuteronomy 32-34 Moses’ farewell
The first five books of the Old Testament make up the first section of the Hebrew Bible and are commonly known under several aliases: the books of the law, the Pentateuch, and the books of Moses. Since the giving of the law is associated with Moses (see Exodus 19-20), the books were traditionally ascribed to him as the author. Although these books are called the books of the law, it would be misleading to understand that these five books are chiefly legal texts or lists of rules. Certainly, there are significant portions of the books that deal with laws and regulations, but these are part of a larger narrative that unfolds. Furthermore, it is more important to understand that our word “law” translates the Hebrew word “Torah,” which focuses more on the notion of “instruction” than “rules.” The Torah was an expression of the community life of the Israelite people as they sought to live in relationship with one another and their God. Apart from our families, the first experience many of us have for the need of rules is at school and later in college. We develop dorm rules in order to keep life reasonably sane so that we don’t kill our roommate or the students next door!
The Pentateuch narrates from the beginning of creation to the emergence of the new people of Israel under the leadership of Moses. As with the
rest of the biblical texts, the setting for this drama is the lands that border the Mediterranean Sea, particularly its southeastern banks, which also marks the location of present day Israel. Little of historical note that concerns the Israelites and her ancestors occurs more than 600-700 miles from this epicenter. Prior to their more formal recognition as a people in the land of Palestine, the book of Genesis portrays Israel’s ancestors as moving from place to place while herding sheep. Historically, there were several dynasties that rose and fell in different areas within the Middle East during this time, but they are hardly mentioned in the narratives about Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (also known as the Patriarchs) in Genesis.
In what follows we survey the content of the first five books of the Old Testament and address some of the historical issues related to the context in which the books were written. Any summary and discussion cannot hope to do justice to the rich and varied traditions included within the text, but, hopefully we highlight significant features that whet your appetite to learn more. The map below not only gives the political divisions that exist within the land today, but also note how small the area is compared to the rest of the world! Back to TOC
*Brief Summary of the Pentateuch
Genesis, the first book of the Bible, derives its name from the Greek word (meaning “beginnings”) that appears in Genesis 2:4 and elsewhere in the ancient Greek version where it refers to the origins of creation. The name is apt, because Genesis offers an account of the beginnings of the universe and humanity until the dispersal of nations under different languages at the Tower of Babel (Genesis 1-11).The narrative then focuses on the person of Abram (subsequently named Abraham) and his descendents, Isaac, Jacob (whose name is later changed to Israel in Gen 32:28), and Joseph, who leads the children of Jacob/Israel to Egypt to escape a severe drought (Genesis 12-50).
Unfortunately for the Israelites, Exodus begins by describing how they were eventually forced to become slaves to the Egyptians. The first part of Exodus narrates how God (who reveals his name to be Yahweh) appeared to Moses, who became his agent as Yahweh delivered his people out of slavery. The Israelites miraculously escape the Egyptian army by crossing the Reed Sea (popularly understood to be the Red Sea), and journey to Mt. Sinai (Exodus 1-19:1). At Sinai Yahweh gives Moses the Ten Commandments and the laws and the Israelites enter into a pact with Yahweh (called a “covenant”) that Yahweh will be their God and they will be Yahweh’s people (Exodus 19-24). The remainder of Exodus is primarily concerned with instructions for building a mobile sanctuary in which the people could worship Yahweh while they travel, which is followed by a narrative detailing how these instructions were completed (Exodus 25-40).
The setting for the book of Leviticus is the mobile sanctuary (Leviticus 1:1), in which Yahweh gives Moses additional instructions in matters primarily concerned with religious activities like how to sacrifice an animal properly and what the priests were to do. Just like the minister in a church does more than preach a sermon on Sunday mornings (how hard can that be?), the priests did more than butcher and burn animals. Scholars employ the term “cult” or the adjective “cultic” when describing the performance of religious activities like sacrifices, ritual cleansings, or duties of priests so do not confuse the term “cult” with the modern, negative way that it is applied to some religious groups.
The name of the fourth book of the Pentateuch, Numbers, is an allusion to the instances that Moses is commanded to take a census of the people (Numbers 1 and 26). Numbers would certainly not meet the expected standards of any book or any essay today! There is no recognizable organization or outline of the book at all. In addition to the two censuses, it includes narratives about the Israelites wandering in the desert, various laws, liturgical calendars, and other lists. Numbers may be roughly divided into two parts: the first section covers the generation of the people who left Egypt until they died due to their disobedience (Numbers 1-25); the second section contrasts the disobedience of the Israelites who left Egypt with the faithfulness of the later generation who arrive at the Jordan River ready to enter the land of Canaan, which Yahweh has promised to the people (Numbers 26-36).
The framework for Deuteronomy (which literally means “second law”), is a farewell speech by Moses to the Israelites prior to their entry into the land of Canaan. The first chapters summarize some of the events of Israel’s wilderness journeys leading up to a call for their obedience to the laws of their God as they enter the land (Deuteronomy 1-4:43). The central section of the book (Deuteronomy 4:44-28) consists of a renewal of the ten commandments (with some changes to those known from Exodus) followed by another exhortation to remain faithful to the law (Chapters 5-11). The laws that are to guide their community in the new land are then repeated (Chapters 12-28). The final chapters close the history of the Israelites under Moses’ leadership. It begins with the people promising again to maintain their pact with Yahweh, which is followed by the final words of Moses to the people and the selection of Joshua to succeed Moses. The last chapter recounts Moses’ death (Deuteronomy 32-34). Back to TOC
* Genesis 1-11 The story of humanity’s origins
What is my purpose? What is my relationship to the rest of creation? Why do people act the way they do? Such questions are common to all people in all ages. Beginning with an account of the way that God created the world and its inhabitants, Genesis 1-11 offers answers to some of these questions. According to Jewish and Christian tradition, Moses was the author of the Pentateuch. Nowhere does the text actually make that claim, though there are five instances that refer to Moses writing something down about the law or at God’s instruction (Exodus 17:14; 24:4; 34:27-28; Numbers 33:2; Deuteronomy 31:9). Regardless of the authorship of Genesis 1-11, the narration of the beginnings of creation, referred to as primeval history, occurred long after the fact. Similar stories about the beginnings of creation such as the Gilgamesh Epic and Enuma Elish have been discovered in neighboring areas of Palestine. Portions of these epics are still available and can be seen today. For example, part of the epic of Gilgamesh describes Gilgamesh’s meeting with Utnapishtim who had learned that the gods planned to send a great flood. He built a boat to survive it just like Noah. The full text of Enuma Elish, which is another Babylonian creation story is available here.
In Genesis, we are struck immediately by the emphasis that it is God who is the creator. He speaks and light is created (Genesis 1:3). At the same time, the early narratives of Genesis are as fascinating for the questions they raise as they are for their content. God creates Adam and Eve, and then we read about Cain, Abel, and Seth. But who were the wives of Cain and Seth? Did they marry their sisters? Did Noah really build an ark for all the animals excluding those that had swimming lessons? We may also be struck by the human images employed to depict God (anthroomorphisms). God takes walks in the garden and talks with people. The narrative is unconcerned with such matters and they were likely irrelevant to the writer because the primary focus is to address why things are the way they are. In so doing the narrative raises other questions regarding such issues as the origin of the sly serpent who speaks to the woman in Genesis chapter three. The symbolic nature of the story seems assured given the fact that there is no explanation provided for the ability of the serpent to speak and to reason. It just can. Furthermore, there is no explanation for the serpent at all. It just arrives.
The Judeo-Christian heritage is characterized by its claim that there is only one God (monotheism), yet from the very beginning of the creation narrative in Genesis 3 there is this serpent character that is opposed to God’s purposes. How and why did it get there? The presence of this serpent, which is ultimately blamed for bringing evil into the created order, is assumed by the narrative. It does not have to be explained! Interestingly, the remainder of the Jewish Scriptures has no more to say about a reptile that opposes God; nor, in contrast to the New Testament, is there much hint that there is any supernatural being that is opposed to God in the Jewish Scriptures. Back to TOC
*Genesis 12-50 The promises to the patriarchs
Collectively, chapters 12-50 are referred to as the “patriarchal narratives” (from the Greek meaning “heads of families”), because they focus first on Abraham (12-25) and then his descendents Isaac (26-28), Jacob (29-36), and finally Jacob’s children, particularly Joseph (37-50). For many readers it seems like the person of Abrahm (later named Abraham) is introduced in Genesis 12 out of nowhere following the Tower of Babel. In reality, however, the reader is prepared for the introduction of Abrahm in Genesis 11:26-32, which describes the genealogy of Terah.
According to the Scriptures, the LORD (that is, God) commands Abram to “Go from your country and your kindred and your father’s house to a land that I will show you” (12:1). At this time the LORD promises to bless Abram and make him into a great nation as well as those who are favorably disposed toward him. This basic promise is repeated and expanded in various passages through the story (12:7; 13:14-17; 15:5, 13-15, 18-21; 17:1-8), but consists of three essential parts that can be remembered as people, place, and presence. People refers to the promise that Abram (later named Abraham) would be the father of a great nation. In 13:6 Abram’s descendents are said to be like the dust of the earth and in 15:5 they will be as numerous as the stars. The place is the land of Canaan that they will inherit (17:8), which is elsewhere described as “the land of the Kenizzites, the Kadmonites, the Hittites, the Perizzites, the Rephaim, the Amorites, the Girgashites, and the Jebusites” (15:20). By presence is meant that the presence of the LORD would accomplish the building of this great nation that would populate the land (17:2, 7-8). The rest of Genesis and the Pentateuch explores how the tension of the LORD’s promises to Abram are initially resolved. In fact, we could say that the bulk of the Hebrew Scriptures are concerned with narrating the experience and the meaning of God’s relationship with the people in the land. Israel’s claim to their land as a nation today is rooted in the Scriptures.
The presence of God with Abram, and by extension his descendents, is epitomized by the covenant that God makes with him. The Hebrew word that we translate as covenant is used quite broadly in the Hebrew Scriptures to refer to an agreement or oath between two parties. Thus, in Genesis 21:27 Abraham and Abimelch reach an agreement of understanding that a certain well belongs to Abraham, and in Genesis 31:44 Jacob promises to Laban before God to look after his daughters who had become Jacob’s wives. In its more technical use a covenant could serve as a type of legal pact between two parties (see Joshua 9) that outlined specific obligations based on a treaty or an alliance. In Genesis 15:18 and 17:2 the relationship between the LORD and Abraham is defined by the promise that the LORD makes to Abraham that the LORD will multiply his descendents and give them the land of the Canaanites. Thus, in this case, the covenant refers to a grant of rights and privileges bestowed by God, even though God commands him and his male descendents to be circumcised as a sign that they have entered into the covenant (17:9-14). It is at this point that God changes Abram’s name to Abraham (17:5) and his wife’s name Sarai to Sarah (17:15).
Even though God promises Abraham that he will give his descendents a land that is not theirs (12:7; 15:18-21; 17:9), there is a brief, yet ominous note attached that prior to receiving their inheritance “your offspring shall be aliens in a land that is not theirs, and shall be slaves there, and they shall be oppressed for four hundred years” (15:13). The rest of Genesis describes the wanderings of Abraham’s descendents until Jacob and his family journey to Egypt to escape a seven year famine, which initiates the period of slavery. The remaining books of the Pentateuch describe the escape from Egypt (Exodus) and the continued wandering of the people (Numbers) until they are about to enter the promised land at the conclusion of Deuteronomy. The descent into Egypt by Jacob and his children and their families due to the famine is foreshadowed from the beginning of the patriarchal narrative since Abrahm also takes his wife and possessions into Egypt due to a famine in the land (12:10). Back to TOC
There is also a tension in Genesis regarding the people of Abraham who will inherit the promised land, which is first expressed in Genesis 16 at the birth of Ishmael. Though Abram has been promised offspring as numerous as the stars, his wife is barren and getting older by the day. Thus, after ten years in Canaan, Sarai suggests to Abram that he procreate with her slave-girl, Hagar (16:2). The result of this union is Ishmael, but God insists that the descendents will originate with a son borne by Sarah (17:16). At the ages of ninety-nine and ninety respectively, Abraham and Sarah find the idea hilarious. In fact, Abraham “fell on his face and laughed” (17:17), while Sarah merely “laughed to herself” (18:12), but there is nothing too impossible for God. After the birth of Isaac to Sarah, Hagar and Ishmael are no longer welcome by Sarah because Ishmael is a potential threat to Isaac’s inheritance (21:11). God assures Abraham that it is okay that he send them away because He will make a nation from Ishmael as well, but the initial promise will be fulfilled through Isaac (21:12-13).
Other events in Abraham’s life heighten the threat to Abraham’s descendents. When Abrahm first journeys to Egypt, he decides that his wife should masquerade as his sister so that he is not killed by someone who covets her. Sarai is eventually taken to Pharaoh, who is afflicted with plagues from God on account of her before he discovers that she is actually Abrahm’s wife. The climax of the Abraham story is reached when he is commanded to take his one and only son Isaac up to a mountain to sacrifice him. It is not until Abraham has the knife raised to strike his son that an angel of the LORD intervenes and provides a ram in the thicket as a substitute. Abraham is faithful to the LORD, and so the promise is reiterated that he will be blessed with descendents as numerous as the sand on the seashore and that all the nations will find blessing as well (22:1-18).
Though the initial tension regarding the descendents of Abraham is resolved, this theme continues through the remainder of Genesis. Isaac’s wife, like Sarah, is initially unable to conceive, but after Jacob prays she has the twins Jacob and Esau. Even though Esau is the one born first, which means that he would normally receive the majority of the inheritance, the LORD declares that the “elder will serve the younger” (25:19-26). In the ensuing narrative Isaac first secures his dominance over his brother by trading some stew to a famished Esau for his birthright as the firstborn (25:29-34).
Later on Jacob, aided in no small part by his mother, completes his subjugation of Esau by deceiving his father Isaac into giving him the words of blessing that are reserved for the firstborn son (27:18-29). Immediately afterward, Jacob decides it might be a good idea to take a long vacation and flees to see his uncle Laban. The reader is not disappointed that there may be a lull in the action, however, because Jacob trouble follows Jacob like a dog in heat!
Laban has two daughters, Leah, the eldest, and Rachel, who is very beautiful. Jacob desires to marry Rachel, so it is agreed that he can marry her after giving Laban seven years of service. Jacob gets a taste of his own medicine when Laban pulls a switch between Rachel and Leah for the wedding. Laban’s reasoning is that the eldest daughter must be married before the younger, so Jacob is required to labor for seven more years for Rachel. The intrigue continues when Jacob devises a means to swindle Laban’s flocks, which results in Jacob’s decision to relocate once again (Genesis 29-31). Today we would probably conclude that the whole family was pretty dysfunctional!
Unseen but assumed through the tumultuous and chaotic events otherwise known as Jacob’s life is the presence of God. When Jacob first escapes from his brother he has a dream in which the LORD appears and states, “I am the LORD, the God of Abraham your father and the God of Isaac; the land on which you lie I will give to you and your offspring; and your offspring shall be like the dust of the earth.” Thus, despite what may appear to be insurmountable obstacles, the reader is reminded of God’s covenant with Abraham. In response to this revelation Jacob vows, “If God will be with me, and will keep me in this way that I go, and will give me bread to eat and clothing to wear, so that I come again to my father’s house in peace, then the LORD shall be my God” (28:13-14, 20-21). That God is faithful in maintaining this promise is evident in the climax of Jacob’s story when he decides to return with his family to his home. Believing that his brother may still have revenge on his mind for the way that he had cheated him, Jacob sends a series of servants ahead with gifts of livestock in order to appease his brother. And, similar to many of us in the time of crisis, prayer becomes very important to Jacob! “Deliver me, please, from the hand of my brother, from the hand of Esau, for I am afraid of him; he may come and kill us all” (32:11). The night before he finally meets Esau Jacob wrestles with a “man” throughout the whole evening. Moreover, this is no mere man because at daybreak he declares, “You shall no longer be called Jacob, but Israel, for you have striven with God and with humans, and have prevailed” (32:28). Jacob’s name is changed, he is blessed by the mysterious agent of God, and the following day he is welcomed by his brother with open arms. All is forgiven.
Even as the conflict between Jacob and Esau is resolved new family dynamics impede the destiny of Abraham’s descendents. Though Jacob is married to Leah, it is Rachel whom he loves. For this reason, according to the Scriptures, God has compassion for Leah and enables her to conceive children to Jacob while Rachel cannot (29:31). Jealousy ensues between the two sisters and Leah bears four boys before Rachel resorts to giving Jacob her maid to have children in her place. Prior to leaving Laban, Leah has six boys and one girl, while Leah’s maid Zilpah also bears two boys. Rachel’s maid Bilhah conceives two boys with Jacob before finally Rachel gives birth to one boy, Joseph. After returning home, Benjamin is borne by Rachel, which makes an even dozen boys, but Rachel dies during the labor (35:16-21). The twelve male children symbolize the twelve tribes of Israel.
The tension within the children continues around Rachel’s firstborn, Joseph, who is Jacob’s favorite. After boasting about a dream in which the sun, the moon, and eleven stars bow down to him, the brothers have had enough of their smug sibling. They end up selling him to traders traveling to Egypt and concoct a story for Jacob that Joseph was slaughtered by a lion. Dreams retain a significant role in Joseph’s life, though in later instances he acts as an interpreter of dreams by others (40:5-15). When the Pharaoh of Egypt has two dreams (41:1-8) that confound interpretation by his magicians, a servant remembers how Joseph had interpreted his dream in prison and relays this to the Pharaoh. God reveals to Joseph that the dreams mean there will be seven good years with plentiful crops followed by seven years of famine, so Joseph advises the Pharaoh to store food during the good years in order to survive the drought. Based on his wise counsel, which is indicative of the Spirit of God in him (41:37), the Pharaoh appoints Joseph as coordinator of the whole project. By the age of thirty Joseph has become second to the Pharaoh in power. Joseph’s dreams about his family bowing down to him are realized when the brothers appear before him for relief from the famine. At first he does not reveal his identity to them and forces the brothers to leave one brother, Simeon, with him and promise to return with their youngest brother. When their initial resources run dry they are forced to return with Benjamin, and, after an initial test of their sorrow for what they had done to him, Joseph identifies himself and encourages the whole family to move to Egypt to escape the famine and to live in comfort. Thus, the whole family journeys to Egypt.
Throughout Genesis 12-50 the themes of wandering, the land, and the conflict within the family predominate. The events in the lives of the patriarchs create dramatic tension around the ability of the central character, God, to fulfill His promise that Abraham’s descendents would inherit the land that He had promised. At the same time, as we read through the narrative, we cannot help but be struck by the number of parallels in the lives of the patriarchs. For example, both Sarai (Genesis 16:1) and Rachel (29:31) are initially unable to bear children. In another instance Abrahm disguises the identity of his wife (12:13), but apparently did not learn much from the episode because he does it later while in Gerar (20:2). Presumably, the family did not discuss such embarrassing incidents because Isaac follows suit in Gerar when he attempts to pass Rebekah off as his sister (26:7)! Famines lead to journeys to Egypt in the case of Abrahm (Genesis 12:10) and Jacob’s family (46:7), while Isaac is advised not to go to Egypt (26:2).
Based on the recurrence of certain themes, direct parallels between incidents in the lives of the patriarchs, and the fact that the written account of these stories must have occurred long after the events they depict, many scholars have concluded that the narratives reflect oral traditions about Israel’s ancestors that were eventually associated with the patriarchs of the biblical narrative. The process that led to their present form as a single literary unit is debated, but the idea that they reflect earlier traditions does provide a good explanation for their content.
The religion of the patriarchs
Genesis assumes that God (or the LORD) is the one God who is present throughout the narrative and is revealed in the history of humanity, but there are indications that we would not describe the patriarchs as strict monotheists. For example, when Jacob flees from Laban, we are informed in Genesis 31:19 that Rachel “stole her father’s household gods.” Similar references to gods and/or idols occur throughout the Pentateuch and the prophetic literature. The acceptance, even worship, of other Gods is no more prominent than in Exodus after God delivers the people from exile. While Moses is still on the mountain receiving the two stone tablets containing the covenant from God, the impatient Israelites pressure his brother Aaron to fashion a golden calf to accept their sacrifices (Exodus 32:1-6).
The first commandment of the covenant between God and the Israelites (which they were breaking!), is to have no other gods before God and the second is not to make an idol (Exodus 20:2-4). Obviously, such prohibitions only exist because of current practices.
The names for God that are found in the patriarchal narratives may also be indicative of early religious beliefs. There are two main names for the divine in the Hebrew Scriptures. The generic name, God, is normally a translation of the Hebrew word Elohim. By far the most common and significant term for the deity in the Hebrew Bible is Yahweh, which is normally translated as Lord in small caps (LORD). These two names for God are sometimes combined with other words to provide an alternative title for the divinity. For example, Yahweh Sebaoth “the LORD of Hosts” occurs 267 times in the Hebrew Scriptures. Elohim is actually a plural form of the singular El, which forms such combinations as El Shaddai “God Almighty” (Genesis 17:1), and El Elyon “God Most High” (Genesis 14:18).
In addition to the two primary designations for the divine in the Scriptures and the way that they are sometimes combined to make a different title, there are other designations for God that occasionally appear. For example, in Genesis 31:5 we read, “So Jacob swore by the Fear of his father Isaac.” In another passage we read about the “Mighty One of Jacob” (Genesis 49:24), which is joined with other names elsewhere (Psalms 132:2, “how he swore to the LORD and vowed to the Mighty One of Jacob;” see also Isaiah 49:26; 60:16). If the patriarchal narratives do refer to ancestral traditions that have been passed down, it is possible that these divine titles retain vestiges of tribal deities that were eventually understood to be revelations of their one God, Yahweh. Back to TOC
The sources for the patriarchal stories
How are we to understand the idiosyncrasies that we encounter in the Pentateuch? On the one hand, it is evident that there is one God whom the patriarchs worship and who is active in their affairs; on the other hand, the stories offer evidence that they worship other gods. We have also noted that there are parallel stories about different patriarchs and must consider the effect that passing the stories down by oral tradition would have had on the way they would have been later recorded.
It is often taught in churches and there are some scholars who would maintain that the Pentateuch was written very early, some of it even by Moses (therefore prior to the 12th century BCE), and that it basically reflects a uniform approach. However, many of the scholars who would maintain this view would concede that there must have been at least some editing of the biblical text over time. For example, in Genesis 14:3 we read “All these joined forces in the valley of Siddim (that is, the Dead Sea)” and in Genesis 23:2 “And Sarah died at Kiriatharba (that is, Hebron), in the land of Canaan.” It would appear that these explanations were added for later readers who were no longer familiar with the original place names. We offer similar explanations, such as “The story is set in Leningrad, which is now called St. Petersburg.” There are a variety of such editorial comments throughout the Pentateuch.Based on phenomena like we have noted above other scholars argue that the present form of the Pentateuch has resulted from a complex process of editing. They point out that there are more than just thematic links and parallel stories about the lives of the patriarchs. Indeed, there are many examples of stories where there seem to be two versions of the same event. Scholars refer to these incidents as “doublets” and these double versions are not limited to the Pentateuch.
The first two chapters of the Hebrew Bible are often referred to as a doublet, because they both portray the period of creation. From the initial creation of light and darkness until the formation of humanity in the image of God, Genesis chapter 1:1-2:3 outlines seven days or stages of creation. Immediately following Genesis 1:1-2:3, there is another account of creation in 2:4-25 that focuses particularly on the creation of humanity and the animals. Some scholars would maintain that these accounts are not doublets, but that they are part of a unified narrative and that each has a different focus. Chapter one is more general in nature, while chapter two deals more specifically with the creation of humanity. If the two narratives are seen as depicting different aspects of the same event, then it is easier to maintain that the narratives reflect a unity. However, the notion that the chapters reflect a narrative unity is more difficult to maintain when we compare specific details in the accounts. For example, according to Genesis one God created all of the animals before he created the man and woman (1:24-26). In chapter two, the male is created first (2:7), and then all the animals are created in order to find a suitable companion (2:18-19). Finally, the female is created from the man’s rib (2:22).
Other examples of possible doublets include the flood story (Genesis 6-9), the death of Saul (1 Samuel 31:4 and 2 Samuel 1:10), and Abraham’s dismissal of Hagar and Ishmael at the request of Sarah (Genesis 16:4-14 and 21:8-21). A close reading of the text prompts a variety of questions. For example, in I Samuel 17 when the Israelites are battling the Philistines Da-
vid is introduced into the story with details about his family in 17:12. Yet, in the previous chapter he is already introduced as the youngest of Jesse’s eight sons (16:11-13). Alongside the occurrence of the various double traditions in the biblical narrative it has also been observed that there seem to be divisions with respect to the use of the names for God. For example, inGenesis 1:1-2:3 the generic term for God (Hebrew Elohim) appears consistently. In contrast, in 2:4-25 the name is always the LORD God (Yahweh Elohim). In the flood story (see above), which is possibly a mixing of two accounts, the divinity is sometimes referred to as God (Elohim), but the LORD (Yahweh) in other cases. Back to TOC
Due to the number of doublets in the Pentateuch and the frequent association of these alternative versions with distinct names for the deity, many scholars believe that the Pentateuch is the result of a complex series of additions of large blocks of material being combined together. The most widely held theory that the Pentateuch comprises a number of sources is known as the Documentary Hypothesis. The Documentary Hypothesis originated with Jean Astruc in 1753, but its most popular form is associated with Julius Wellhausen (1882). The Documentary Hypothesis affirms that the Pentateuch consists of four basic documents. These documents were written in different places and were edited together over time. Thus, it is possible that we have a version of the flood story where the name for the deity is Yahweh and another version in which the name is Elohim. This latter version of the flood story may come from the same document as the creation account in Genesis chapter one because the generic name for dent in a section such as Genesis chapter two where the name for the divine God, Elohim, also appears there. Editing of the documents may be evi is Yahweh Elohim (The LORD God). It is believed that the document originally used the name Yahweh alone, but when the two creation accounts were edited together the name Elohim was added in each instance to produce Yahweh Elohim. This might have been done in an attempt to help create a sense of unity between the two accounts.
Thus, the idea behind the theory of the Documentary Hypothesis is that the first sources (J and E) were created at different times in different places, but that these sources were later joined together and were supplemented over time with D and P. We could diagram the idea of how the Pentateuch was combined originally from oral sources to its final form according to the documentary hypothesis as below. Back to TOC
Stage I
Stage II
+
Stage III
Stage IV +
Stage V +
Figure 2.13
Of course, there is no way to prove the Documentary Hypothesis. If there were separate documents, they no longer exist. It is a hypothesis that attempts to explain the phenomena that we encounter when we actually read the biblical text. There seem to be duplicate accounts of events and odd repetitions of information as if it had not been given before, which would be strange if the Pentateuch was originally a unified document. Other scholars raise serious questions about the proposed reconstruction. For example, studies have concluded that oral traditions cannot be preserved over several generations. There are also questions about how early the traditions would have been compiled into written sources and the tendency is to date the accounts as late as the exile (587 BCE) or even later. Some scholars have even argued that the whole Pentateuch is a product of the fifth century BCE. In this view, the whole literary tradition is invented and tells more about the ideas and practices of the time it was written than it does about history. Regardless of the exact dating, it is evident that we will probably never be able to provide a satisfactory explanation for the way the Pentateuch was originally formed in all of its details. Back to TOC
* Exodus 1-18 Deliverance from slavery
The book of Genesis narrates how Abraham’s descendents wind up as slaves in the land of Egypt for four hundred years just as it is predicted in 15:13. Exodus is the first installment of their journey from slavery and oppression that leads ultimately to the occupation of the foreign land that God promises Abraham and his descendents in Genesis 17:8. The first section of Exodus explains the deliverance of the people from slavery in Egypt until they reach Mt. Sinai. For an older generation of readers, one cannot think of the Exodus without the image of Charlton Heston playing Moses. While it is true that a younger generation is probably more influenced by the animated film, The Prince of Egypt, than The Ten Commandments, the Hollywood version of events probably has some bearing on our understanding of the The book of Genesis narrates how Abraham’s descendents wind up as slaves in the land of Egypt for four hundred years just as it is predicted in 15:13. Exodus is the first installment of their journey from slavery and oppression that leads ultimately to the occupation of the foreign land that God promises Abraham and his descendents in Genesis 17:8. The first section of Exodus explains the deliverance of the people from slavery in Egypt until they reach Mt. Sinai. For an older generation of readers, one cannot think of the Exodus without the image of Charlton Heston playing Moses. While it is true that a younger generation is probably more influenced by the animated film, The Prince of Egypt, than The Ten Commandments, the Hollywood version of events probably has some bearing on our understanding of the story.
According to Exodus 1:5 there were seventy descendents of Jacob that had gone down to Egypt, but they “multiplied and grew exceedingly strong.” The increasing population of the Israelites is eventually viewed as a threat to the Pharaoh of Egypt who imposes slave labor (Exodus 1:10-15). In addition, he instructs the two midwives who help deliver babies to throw male newborns into the river (1:16). Despite these threats, the Israelites continue to thrive, and in response to their faithfulness, God favors the midwives with children (1:21). Thus, as previously noted in Genesis, one of the ways that God is described as favoring women is by childbearing.
As readers, we know from the outset of Exodus that details are not that important to the narrator nor are matters of consistency to those who shaped the final text. For example, though Genesis states that they will be in slavery for four hundred years, the imposition of slavery and their deliverance appear to occur during the reign of the same Pharaoh in Exodus and the length of their slavery is not provided. The Pharaoh of Egypt is not even named in the account, which would presumably be quite memorable. Some scholars have identified the Pharaoh with II, who is immortalized in this huge statue, but there is no basis for that belief. Finally, we may note that the text states that there are two Hebrew midwives even though according to Exodus 12:37 there were “about six hundred thousand men,” which would make a total of at least two million people. How would it be possible for two midwives to service the needs of the expectant mothers in a population equivalent to that of a large city?
The narrative then focuses on the birth of one particular boy, who is taken by his sister and placed in a basket in a river where the Pharaoh’s daughter bathes so that he might be discovered by her (2:1-11; note the similarities to the ). She names him Moses and he is raised in the Egyptian court, though the text does not provide any details of his upbringing. The scene quickly shifts to Moses as an adult who kills an Egyptian that was beating a Hebrew slave, which forces him to flee for his life to Midian (2:11-16). There Moses meets the seven daughters of Jethro, the priest of Midian, and marries Zipporah. Back to TOC
The deliverance of the Israelites from Egypt is initiated when Moses experiences an encounter with God (a theophany) on Mt. Horeb (Exodus 3:1). While tending Jethro’s flock Moses sees a bush engulfed in flames, yet it does not burn. Just as a fire attracts the curious today, Moses approaches for a closer inspection. God commands him to come no closer and informs him that He has heard the cries of the enslaved Israelites. God then enlists Moses as his messenger to bring the people out of Egypt and bring them to the land that He had promised to their ancestors Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (3:7-12). According to Acts 7:30 this encounter takes place forty years after Moses fled to the desert, but there is no chronology provided in Exodus. Regardless of any fancy light shows and other evidence that God provides about divine power (see chapter 4), Moses is not the most willing draftee; so God eventually allows that Moses may speak through his brother Aaron. The narrative is unconcerned with explaining how Moses locates Aaron, and the incident reminds us of the theme that God is able to overcome any obstacles to accomplish His purposes.
Punctuating the encounter with Moses is the revelation of a new name for God to Moses, which is only comprehended in the light of two passages. First, in 3:13, Moses inquires, “if they ask me, ‘What is his name?’ what shall I say to them?” God’s response is, “‘I am who I am.’ He said further, ‘Thus you shall say to the Israelites, ‘I am has sent me to you.’” This is the first encounter where there is a distinct emphasis on the name for God who is the same God that was known to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. It is also possible to translate the first line as, “I will be who I will be.” The words “I am/will be” are actually the translation of the first person form of the Hebrew verb that is equivalent to the verb “to be” in English. (In English the first person of “to be” in the present tense is “I am.”) The use of the verb suggests to scholars that there is some emphasis on the presence or self-existence of the divinity, but we do not have the specific name that appears in the Scriptures until the second passage. Back to TOC
After this revelation, Moses goes to Pharaoh to request that the people be granted a three day vacation to worship God. Pharaoh is not interested in losing free labor, so he both denies the request and makes life more difficult for the Israelites. For this reason, none of the Israelites are impressed with Moses’ initial rescue efforts. Then God comes to Moses a second time and states in 6:2-3, “I am the LORD. I appeared to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob as God Almighty, but by my name ‘The LORD’ I did not make myself known to them.” It is difficult to recognize the connection in the English translation between the two passages, but the name The LORD in this passage is derived from the same verb that is used in 3:14. The Hebrew word Yahweh is translated as “The LORD,” but Yahweh is a noun that is based on the same Hebrew verb meaning “to be.” According to the Scriptures, the particular name for the divinity, Yahweh, which is the most sacred name for God in the Hebrew Scriptures, is first disclosed to Moses.
The emphasis on the unique revelation of the name Yahweh (The LORD) to Moses provides an excellent opportunity to understand why scholars ask questions about the nature of the biblical text. If the name The LORD is first revealed to Moses, how do we explain the use of the name previously in the narrative? More importantly, the text explicitly states “I appeared to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob as God Almighty, but by my name ‘The LORD’ I did not make myself known to them.” Genesis 17:1 complies with this assertion because it relates that God appeared to Abraham and identifies himself as “I am God Almighty.” However, in Genesis 28:13 Yahweh announces to Jacob, “I am the LORD, the God of Abraham your father and the God of Isaac.” In response to the birth of her fourth son Leah exclaims, “This time I will praise the LORD.” How could Leah use this name for the divinity if it had not yet been revealed? Similarly, if God declares “I am the LORD” to Jacob, that contradicts the statement that the name is a revelation to Moses. At the very least, we have to conclude that the use of Yahweh in the narrative prior to the revelation of the name to Moses must be anachronistic. The fact there are passages where the name is already employed prior to being revealed to Moses explains why scholars suggest that there may have been different literary sources. As we have it, the Hebrew text exhibits various signs of changes and editing over time.
Charged by the LORD once again with the responsibility of confronting Pharaoh, Moses and Aaron return and demand the release of the people. Pharaoh remains obstinate, and so the LORD initiates a series of ten plagues against the Egyptians to convince Pharaoh that he is messing with the wrong divinity (Exodus 7-12). In the tenth plague “the LORD struck down all the firstborn of Egypt, from the firstborn of Pharaoh who sat on his throne to the firstborn of the prisoner who was in the dungeon, and all the firstborn of the livestock” (Exodus 12:29). The massive destruction finally causes Pharaoh to relent, so Moses and the people flee from Egypt. The plague and the hurried departure from Egypt are commemorated in Passover and the feast of unleavened bread.
Shortly after agreeing to the release of the Israelites Pharaoh decides that he might have acted a little too hastily. Gathering his army of “six hundred picked chariots and all the other chariots of Egypt” (Exodus 14:7), Pharaoh pursues the Israelites until overtaking them near the sea of reeds (Exodus 13:18). Though this “sea” has been understood in popular tradition to refer to the Red Sea, “sea of reeds” is an accurate translation of the Hebrew. It may refer to a marshy area near the Suez Canal, but the location is not that important. In some respects, even the tendency to identify the sea with a marshy area reflects a concern to explain the deliverance of the Israelites from the pursuing Egyptians in naturalistic ways and downplay the miraculous character of the event as it is described in the narrative. Regardless of the exact location or type of sea that was divided, Exodus records that the escape occurred due to the intervention of their God. According to the narrative it was a miracle. Having recovered from their initial shock at escaping, the Israelites have the opportunity to complain about their new circumstances (Exodus 16-17). It is interesting that the complaints relate to basic human needs—food and water—and God acts to provide. The narrative then shifts to the giving of the law at Mt. Sinai. Back to TOC
*History and the biblical narratives
At what point does “real history” begin in the Bible? This question is important to many people, particularly Christians, because there is frequently an equation made between the integrity of the text as the word of God and the accuracy of the information that it is reporting. Many people, though not all, may be quite willing to agree that Genesis 1-11 may not refer to actual events, but where do reports about historical events begin? Is it
with Abraham, Joseph, Moses? Can we reconstruct the migration of the Israelites from Egypt? The issue admits of no easy resolution and I hope the following discussion will help to clarify why this is so.
Without realizing it, people who hinge the integrity of the text on whether the narrative is factually correct (its historicity) have made two key assumptions about the nature of the text as well as the function of historical texts. First, it is assumed that since the biblical narrative is describing people and events that it was intended to be read as a factual account about the various patriarchs. This conclusion may in fact be true, but it is not demanded by the narrative itself. Fiction is predicated upon the ability of the author to create lifelike characters and events in order to educate, moralize, or even to entertain. The conclusion that the patriarchal narratives and the
deliverance of the Israelites from Egypt are intended to provide details about people and events is grounded in the demands of the text that are imposed by the contemporary reader. Second, even if the texts were intended to provide information about the events they depict, it is presupposed that the narratives consist of unbiased and objective reports. However, there is a crucial difference between the historicity of an event and the way that information about an historical event is recorded. Back to TOC
Students in the field of history have recognized that the writing of history involves far more than a simple recording of “just the facts.” There are numerous decisions about such matters like the selection of what to include
and what not to include, the order of events, the events that are highlighted as especially important, and the motives that guide each of these decisions.
The study of the way history has been written (and this applies to the way it is written today), is called historiography. The fact that historians make a variety of choices about the way they present the material means that they are also presenting a specific interpretation of the events that are described. It is for this reason that we can conclude that no writing about history is truly objective. For example, if we were to read and compare accounts of the Second World War by historians from Britain, Canada, Russia, and the United States there would no doubt be significant differences between their descriptions of what happened. Though I may be wrong, it would not be surprising to discover that the authors focused on the contributions and accomplishments of their own country. At the same time, we also recognize that some accounts may reflect even more emphasis or discussion of particular events than others, so that we may question the accuracy of the report as a whole. Thus, each description may be about historical happenings, but they are also interpretations from a particular perspective. In that sense, we may deduce that each interpretation is slightly biased. We may come to a conclusion about the historicity of the Second World War, but reading any one of the histories without evaluating the interpretation provided by the others leaves us with only a partial understanding. Even after we have read all of these histories we may have a better and more informed view of “what happened,” but the differing accounts will probably also raise some questions about “what actually happened” in various instances.
Based on the discussion above we can conclude that interpreting history from ancient documents raises several problems. A primary obstacle for the contemporary reader is the limited resources that we have at our disposal to inform us about that period. In the case of the Hebrew Scriptures, normally they are the only written sources that we have about the events in question. As we have noted in the case of the Exodus, the narrative does not include details like the name of the Pharaoh, which would make it easier to fit into a larger chronology of world events. At the same time, the date early in the fifteenth century that is given by I Kings 6:1 does not seem credible to any scholar and there is no record, Egyptian or otherwise, of a mass exodus of slaves. One might presume that two million people on the run might warrant some attention from somebody, and, as we proceed through this volume, we will occasionally note other places where the historical information in the Scriptures does not match what we can establish from other sources. We might also question aspects of the narrative like what kind of threat that an army of “six hundred picked chariots and all the other chariots of Egypt” (Exodus 14:7) posed to over two million people. Finally, there is very little material evidence that has been discovered from that historical period that helps to confirm or deny the people and events that are discussed in the biblical narrative. This is particularly true of the period prior to the monarchy, which began with Saul in the 11th century BCE, but applies to the majority of the biblical record. For example, there are references to various kings and places in the Scriptures that can be confirmed from non-biblical sources, but the biblical narrative provides specific details about conversations, decisions, and motives about those individuals. At the same time, it would be unrealistic to expect any Egyptian source to have a record of Moses’ debate with a Pharaoh or for some other source to provide insight into the process of the way David became the second king over Israel. Therefore, as we examine the biblical account of what happened at the exodus, we begin with the recognition that it is an example of historiography. The history and the material that has been included reflects a particular point of view. There is a specific worldview and theology that is presented in the Scriptures: things happen as a result of what God intends. This “God’s eye” point of view transcends what we can decipher from the historical evidence in any case, because it originates in the interpretation provided by the narrator of the story. There are no means for any historical evidence to confirm the historicity of what God is said to have done. That does not mean there is no historical evidence about the early Israelites. For example, the Mereneptah Stele, which was discovered in Egypt, contains the earliest known reference to the people of Israel. It just means that no material evidence or record about the existence of the Israelites can confirm anything about conversations, ideas, thoughts, or notions about God. That is why the majority of the biblical narrative is an excellent example of historiography. The basis for the authors’ interpretation of the way things happen is crystal clear, because their primary concern is to interpret the way they believe that God has intervened and interacted with the chosen people.
* Exodus 19-40 Establishing a code of conduct
Three months after escaping the Egyptians the Israelites arrive at Mt. Sinai where they first receive the law. The initial reception of the law is normally associated with the narrative in Exodus 19-24 and this section can be broken into two main parts: the ten commandments in 20:3-17 and the Book of the Covenant in 20:23-23:19. The function of the commandments and laws is frequently misunderstood. Nowadays, it seems that there can be knee-jerk reactions to rules, particularly about morals, and the laws are interpreted in a negative way. However, it would be misguided to interpret these laws as merely a list of rules and regulations for Israel to obey. Receiving the commandments and the law is in the context of Israel entering into a covenant with the LORD. The purpose of the covenant was to signify that the LORD and the people were entering into a special relationship. Moses is instructed to say to the people that if they are obedient to the LORD and obey His covenant, then they will be His “treasured possession” (19:5). Though the commandments and laws do provide guidelines for aspects of ethical behavior, the presupposition is that entering into this special relationship with the LORD should result in certain standards of behavior. The desired goal of the law is positive with respect to the life of the Israelite community. Indeed, it is difficult to argue that commandments such as “You shall not murder,” “You shall not commit adultery,” and “You shall not steal” (20:13-15) are not desireable standards for healthy relationships in a society. Back to TOC
The Hebrew term employed here for covenant (berith) generally refers to an agreement between two parties. In some cases, the agreement would have the sense of a pact that is legally binding; as such, a covenant was a term that covered a wide range of contractual agreements in the ancient near east. For example, it defines a political treaty or alliance between kings (I Kings 5:12; 15:19) or individuals (2 Samuel 3:12). In this case the covenant is between the LORD and the people of Israel and there are clear parallels to this covenant with other covenants that are known from neighboring nations around the same period in history. The Hittites (15th-13th century) and the Assyrians (9th-7th century) offer models of vassal treaties that have similar characteristics to what we find in the biblical covenants. These treaties defined the nature of the ongoing relationship between two nations, one of which had come to dominate the other. In return for the promise of continued protection, the lower nation would agree to particular obligations that normally included some kind of payment. Similar forms to the covenant in Exodus are evident in Joshua 24 and even the whole book of Deuteronomy.
The covenant at Sinai is the foundation for the relationship between Yahweh and the people of Israel. The solemnity of the agreement is emphasized in the narrative both by the fearful response of the people to the signs of the LORD’s presence (19:16-19) and by their promise: “Everything that the LORD has spoken we will do,” which occurs both before the Ten Commandments (19:7) and after the Book of the Covenant (24:3; see also verse 7). The Book of the Covenant in 20:23-23:19 appears as an expansion of the basic principles set forth in the Ten Commandments, and the laws as they appear in Numbers, Leviticus or Deuteronomy may be understood as additions and adjustments to the law based on changing circumstances. After all, Deuteronomy literally means “second law,” and the laws are explicitly addressed to the way that the people are to live when they are in the land that God had promised (Deuteronomy 6:10). Deuteronomy even includes a repetition of the ten commandments, but the careful reader will note that there have been revisions to the commandments regarding why the people were to rest on the Sabbath day (Exodus 20:11; Deuteronomy 5:15) and there is a slight modification to the blessing of honoring their parents (Exodus 20:12; Deuteronomy 5:16).
The terms of the covenant are “carved in stone” when Moses is commanded by Yahweh to meet him on the mountain to receive the tablets of stone containing the law and the commandments (Exodus 24:12). Over a period of forty days he receives a variety of instructions, though the majority of them concern the construction of a mobile sanctuary that would symbolize the presence of the LORD with his people (chs. 25-30) as they journeyed from Mt. Sinai to the land that God had promised. At the conclusion of this time it is noted that God gave Moses “the two tablets of the covenant, tablets of stone, written with the finger of God” (31:18).
Unfortunately, the Israelites appear to be a rather fickle lot. Impatient during Moses’ absence, they pressure Aaron to mold a golden idol in the form of a calf (32:1-4). Moses is so angry at their insolence that he breaks the stone tablets and, after grinding the calf to a powder, scatters the remains in the water and forces the Israelites to drink it (32:19-20). Initially, the LORD plans to “consume them” (32:10). Moses intercedes on their behalf and the initial punishment subsides to a decision to remove the divine presence from the people (33:3); eventually the LORD relents of his anger due to the favor he has for Moses (33:17). It is interesting to note in this scene that Moses is able to counsel the LORD and talk Him out of making any rash decisions. Moses returns to the mountain for another forty days for another copy of the covenant. The remaining chapters of Exodus describe the construction of the mobile sanctuary (35-40). The sign of the presence of the LORD is a cloud that covers the sanctuary and when the cloud raised above it “the Israelites would set out on each stage of their journey” (40:36).
* Leviticus Sacrifices and yet more laws
It is best to admit from the outset that it would be difficult to make the book of Leviticus sound attractive to read. The book consists primarily of a series of regulations for proper administration of sacrifices (chapters 1-7), laws for purification (chapters 11-16), and other laws that would govern the life of the community (chapters 17-27). The latter section is normally titled The Holiness Code and seems to reflect a separate source that was incorporated into the book of Leviticus. Due to the emphasis on rituals and other priestly concerns it would seem that the origins of the book should probably be located in that milieu. That is why Leviticus is often identified with the P (Priestly) source for the Pentateuch. Back to TOC
The sacrificial system was the means by which the people were to demonstrate their intention to remain faithful to Yahweh and keep the covenant, though the prophets sometimes had to criticize the formality of the cult by saying sacrifices were nothing without a proper attitude (Micah 6:6-8). The Burnt offering (Leviticus 1), Grain offering (Leviticus 2), Peace or Fellowship offering (Leviticus 3), Sin offering (Leviticus 4:1-5:13; 6:24-30), and Guilt offering (5:14-6:7; 7:1-10) provided means to both celebrate before the LORD as well as to acknowledge failure. Offerings for guilt, for example, were not intended to be mere formalities or to constitute insincere apologies like we sometimes hear (“I’m sorry if what I did offended you”). Rather, the sacrifice was symbolic of an acknowledgement that a sin had been committed. We read in 6:4, “when you have sinned and realize your guilt.”
The Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur) was established as the most important day to offer a sacrifice for all the sins of Israel (Leviticus 16:21, 30). It was so special that it was the only time that the priest would enter the inner most room of the sanctuary (called the Holy of Holies) in order to offer a sacrifice. As with the other sacrifices there are detailed instructions given, but the sacredness of this event is obvious in the extra requirements. For example, the priest has to first offer a sacrifice for himself (16:6) before offering a sacrifice for the people. Moreover, he has to bathe first and wear special clothes for the whole process (16:4), and when the sacrifice is finished he has to go “outside the camp” to wash the clothes and bathe again before being able to return. There were two goats used as part of the ritual. One was sacrificed, while the priest was to lay his hands on the head of the other, confess all the sins of the people, and then sent it out of the camp as a symbol of the sins being removed from the community (16:21). Our term “scapegoat” derives from this process. All of this ritual served to remind the people of the holiness of God and the infectiousness of sin. Sin not only needed to be acknowledged, but there had to be a means of restitution. The Israelite community that dwelled in the camp needed to be cleansed from the effects of impurity and sin. The rule of thumb for each member of the community was that “you shall love your neighbor as yourself” (20:18).
The Holiness Code in Leviticus 17-27 is based on the same premise: sin is a reality and is in direct conflict with God who is holy. For that reason, the people are called to be holy (19:2). “I am the LORD” and “I the LORD am holy” are constant refrains throughout the giving of the laws that are to govern the conduct of the people. The laws represent a sacred constitution and charter of rights and freedoms for the Israelite community. The structure of many of the laws follows a distinct pattern that is known from other law codes in the ancient near east. Some are prohibitions (“You shall not . . .”); others identify a hypothetical situation, and a course of action is prescribed to deal with it. In Leviticus 25:25 it states, “If anyone of your kin falls into difficulty and sells a piece of property, then the next of kin shall come and redeem what the relative has sold.” The verses that follow give alternative scenarios if the next of kin is unable to fulfill the obligation. The Code of Hammurabi, who was king of Babylon in 1792-1750 BCE, exhibits a similar pattern. For example, law 196 commands, “If a man put out the eye of another man, his eye shall be put out.” The “eye for an eye” law (or lex talionis) occurs in the Hebrew Scriptures in Leviticus 24:19-20: “Anyone who maims another shall suffer the same injury in return: fracture for fracture, eye for eye, tooth for tooth; the injury inflicted is the injury to be suffered.”
*Numbers Wilderness wanderings Back to TOC
There is no discernible pattern for the material that is contained in Numbers. The setting for the book is the wilderness of Sinai and its environs from which the Israelites were to depart and enter the land promised by God as an inheritance to Abraham. However, when twelve spies are dispatched to investigate, ten of them report “We are not able to go up against this people. For they are stronger than we” (13:31). Only Joshua and Caleb are confident because “the LORD is with us,” but “the whole congregation threatened to stone them” (14:9-10). Once more the LORD considers striking the people with disease, but Moses is able to talk Him out of it. However, the consequence is that none of the Israelites who are twenty years of age or older will enter the promised land except for Joshua and Caleb. The
Israelites would spend forty years wandering in the wilderness until all those people had died (14:11-34). Thus, the remainder of the content in the book consists primarily of various events that occur during their wandering.
One incident of note in Numbers is the revolt of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram. As the story unfolds Korah is addressed seperately from Dathan and Abiram, and it appears that there are two different complaints. With Korah there is a test to determine who may burn incense before the LORD, because Korah is inciting the Levites against Aaron (see 16:5-11, 16-19, 36-49). Dathan and Abiram appear to be complaining about Moses’ leadership and that he has led the people out of a good land. They refuse to appear before Moses (16:12-15) and the LORD instructs Moses to have the people separate themselves from them. As Moses addresses Dathan and Abiram, the “earth opened its mouth and swallowed them up, along with their households” (16:20-35). The authority of Moses is even challenged earlier by Aaron and Moses’ sister Miriam (12:2). The LORD rebukes Aaron and Miriam for their insolence, because Moses is the only person with whom the LORD speaks “face to face” (12:8), and Miriam is made leprous as a punishment (12:10). After Moses intercedes for her, she is made to stay outside the camp for seven days. The centrality of Moses as the leader and intermediary between the LORD and the people is underlined throughout the narrative.
*Deuteronomy 1-32 The law in the land Back to TOC
The final book of the Pentateuch is presented as a restatement of the law to the people of Israel prior to their entry into the land. By restatement is meant more than just a repetition of the laws. For example, the addition of the words: “Remember that you were a slave in the land of Egypt, and the LORD your God brought you out from there with a mighty hand and an outstretched arm” to the commandment to keep the Sabbath in Deuteronomy 5:15 provides a reinterpretation of the reason for the law. Many of the laws in Deuteronomy exhibit changes when compared to the form in Exodus that focus on a reinterpretation of the law for a new situation . Deuteronomy is written as if it consists of a final speech to the Israelites by Moses before they begin their new life, and, as previously mentioned, the book itself seems to model the ancient near eastern form of a treaty. The first four chapters provide a historical prologue of what had happened since the LORD had brought them up from the land of Egypt, and we should note in passing that the slavery in Egypt is mentioned frequently in Deuteronomy as a motive for why they should maintain the covenant (15:15; 16:12; 24:18). The ten commandments are repeated in 5:6-21, and the blessings and cursings that may result from faithfulness or disobedience to the law are the focus of chapters 6-11 and 29-32. The bulk of the book provides the specific laws of the covenant that the people are to maintain when they are in the land (6:10).
Historically, the writing of the book of Deuteronomy is usually associated with the early prophets in the Hebrew Scriptures (Joshua, Judges, 1-2 Samuel, 1-2 Kings). The laws and themes that are expressed in Deuteronomy seem to prevail through these books; so it is believed that the rewriting of the law for the Israelites when they were living in the land reflects the same social context from which these books emerged. Due to the connection between the former prophets and the book of Deuteronomy they are also described as the Deuteronomistic History. Greater detail on the Deuteronomistic History is provided in the following chapter.
Back to TOC
The Shema
One of the most memorable passages in all of the Hebrew Scriptures and one of the most important for Jews is Deuteronomy 6:4-5: “Hear, O Israel: The LORD is our God, the LORD alone. You shall love the LORD your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your might.” This is also known as the Shema. The latter part of verse four is difficult to interpret, which explains why the NRSV includes a footnote offering several other ways to translate the verse: “Or, The LORD our God is one LORD, or The LORD our God, the LORD is one, or The LORD is our God, the LORD is one.” The uncertainty focuses around the use of the word “one” or “alone” in the verse. The passage seems to be focusing on the exclusive nature of the relationship between Yahweh and Israel, which is emphasized in verse five in the command to love Yahweh with every part of one’s being, though it may be referring to the unity of His nature or even be making a claim for monotheism.
* Deuteronomy 32-34 Moses’ farewell
The epilogue of Deuteronomy consists of three basic parts: the “Song of Moses” in 32:1-43 offers some overview of Israel’s history with God in order to trust the LORD; chapter 33 consists of a final blessing from Moses to the people; and the final chapter records Moses’ death. The association with Moses as the lawgiver and the intermediary of the LORD from the exodus to the entry into the land explains why the pentateuch as a whole has been traditionally linked to Moses as its author.
Summary
1. The Pentateuch narrates from the beginning of creation to the exodus from Egypt of the people of Israel under the leadership of Moses up until the point that they are to enter the promised land.
2. The stories of the patriarchs (Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph) in Genesis exhibit similar themes and events in the lives of the characters.
3. The Pentateuchal narratives are historiography. In some instances there are historical similarites to practices in the Hebrew Scriptures (e.g. vassal treaties and the Code of Hammurabi), but there are no historical means to verify the historicity of the events that are described.
4. The sacred name “The LORD” (Yahweh) is revealed to Moses in Exodus 6:2-3 and the LORD establishes a covenant with the people of Israel.
5. The composition of the Pentateuch was complex and the present state of the texts does not allow easy solutions. The traditional view that Moses was the author is based on his role as the intermediary of the law. The occurrence of doublets in stories, laws, and events, coupled with the two divine names in the narrative have led many scholars to adopt the documentary hypothesis as the best explanation for the origin of the Pentateuch.
Content Questions
1. What are some differences between our modern laws and the Torah given to the Israelites in Exodus 20:3-17 and Deuteronomy 5:7-21?
2. In Genesis 15:18 and 17:2 God and Abra(ha)m enter a covenant with each other. What is promised to Abraham as part of this covenant? Why is this promise significant for Israel today?
3. What two Hebrew words are primarily used in the Hebrew Scriptures to refer to God? What might the use of two names for God in the Pentateuch tell us about its composition?
4. The Documentary Hypothesis claims that the Pentateuch is a combination of four basic documents. Other than the evidence of multiple names for God, what other evidence does the text of the Pentateuch provide to support this hypothesis?
5. What is the relationship between history and historiography? Where does history begin in the Hebrew Bible?
6. What motive is given to the people in Deuteronomy as a reason to keep the law? What does God promise his people if they keep the law?
7. Why has the Pentateuch, as a whole, traditionally been linked to Moses as its author?
Analytical or Discussion Questions
1. How does the view that Moses wrote the Pentateuch compare to beliefs by other religions? For example, Moslems affirm that Mohammed wrote the Quran and Mormons believe that Joseph Smith received golden tablets from the angel Moroni.
2. Read the Epic of Gilgamesh, the Enuma Elish, and Genesis 1-10. How are they different? The same? Though there is no direct influence between the myths found in the Epic of Gilgamesh or the Enuma Elish and Genesis, how does the existence of similar stories in other cultures help us to understand the function of Genesis 1-11?
3. Given the contemporary recognition and value for other religious views, what are possible ways that one could evaluate Israel’s claim to their land as a nation based on the promise of God in the Scriptures?
4. Using the story of Jacob, discuss the rhetorical influence of a narrative on the readers. How does the point of view affect the way that we read and understand events?
5. Read Exodus 13:17-14:30. If there were an Egyptian record of this event, write the type of information you think that it would include.
6. Consider the various sacrifices that are explained in Leviticus 1-7. What kind of rituals are present in religious services today and what is their function?
7. Pharaoh pursues the Israelites with his chariots, after changing his mind about their release (Exodus 13:17-14:31). By what means do the Israelites escape Pharaoh’s army? Considering that the escape may not be historically factual, what is the author of Exodus trying to tell the reader about Israel's God by including this story?
Additional Resources
Blenkinsopp, Joseph. The Pentateuch : An Introduction to the First Five
Books of the Bible. Garden City: Doubleday, 2000.
Campbell, Antony and Mark A. O’Brien. Sources of the Pentateuch. Minne
apolis: Fortress, 1993.
Matthews, Victor H. and Don C. Benjamin. Old Testament Parallels. Re
vised edition. New York: Paulist, 1991.
Wenham, Gordon J. Exploring the Old Testament: A Guide to the Penta
teuch. Downer’s Grove: Inter-Varsity, 2003.
Whybray, R. N. Introduction to the Pentateuch. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1995.
Back to TOC
Chapter Three
The Early Prophets of the Hebrew Scriptures
What you will find in this chapter
*Introduction to the Early Prophets
*Joshua The divine warrior and dividing the spoils
*Judges Everyone does what is right in their own eyes
*1 Samuel 1−15 The beginning of the monarchy and Saul, the first king
*1 Samuel 16−2 Samuel 23 The reign of David
*1 Kings 1−11 Solomon
*1 Kings 12−2 Kings The divided kingdom
The title “Early Prophets” is slightly misleading since these books are not associated with specific prophetic figures and there are very few “prophecies” contained in these books. Joshua, Judges, (1−2) Samuel, and (1−2) Kings are part of the prophetic section of the Hebrew canon; the designation “former” or “early” prophets serves to distinguish these books from the so-called writing prophets like Isaiah and Jeremiah. Although some of the material is about prophets, the content of the early prophets is almost entirely in the form of historical narrative (i.e. historiography). For this reason, in the Christian canons these books are identified as historical books.
The narrative of the early prophets is concerned with the same major themes that were initiated in the Pentateuch. The people of Israel inherit the land that had been promised to their ancestor Abraham and God will bless them with his presence, as long as they remain faithful to the covenant. Unfortunately, the early prophets trace the highs and lows of the Israelites’ relationship with their God and there are more lows than highs. It begins with the triumph and the excitement of their entry into the land that God had promised to their ancestors in Joshua, but they are eventually taken into exile in 2 Kings. Though there appear to be some discrepancies in the narrative, which we will discuss in due course, the early prophets begin with the Israelites entering and conquering the land promised by God. The control over the land is apparently incomplete based on the events in Judges, which records inhabitants whom the tribes of Israel failed to remove, as well as the records of battles later in Samuel and Kings. The latter books record how the twelve tribes of Israel are united under a monarchy that begins with Saul, but the land that was promised is brought under Israelite control during the reign of David. Relative peace is enjoyed during the reign of Solomon, but following his death the kingdom divides into two nations: Israel in the north and Judah in the south. Eventually, both these nations are defeated. Indeed, the story is characterized by the slow and steady spiritual and ethical bankruptcy of the people. Moreover, the story of Israel’s descent into insignificance is ominously anticipated in Deuteronomy. For example, Deuteronomy describes how Israel will ask for a king, which happens in 1 Samuel 8:5, and “he must not acquire many wives for himself, or else his heart will turn away” (Deuteronomy 17:14−17). Solomon is later indicted for what appears to be an insatiable sexual appetite and the apostasy that results from his foreign relations (1 Kings 11:1−8). Beginning in Deuteronomy 28:15, Moses recites the curses that will come upon the people if they do not “obey the LORD your God by diligently observing all his commandments and decrees” and warns that they will be taken into exile (28:32−37, 41−43; 47−52; 63−65). It appears that the early prophets serve to chronicle the ways in which Israel and its leaders fail to uphold the Deuteronomic laws. Based on the common themes in the early prophets and that their failures are so closely related to the laws as they are expressed in Deuteronomy, Martin Noth argued that these books (Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings) should be considered component parts of one literary unit: the Deuteronimistic History. In this chapter we will learn about the rise and decline of the monarchy and the nation, and the way that story is depicted in the early prophets.
*Introduction to the Early Prophets Back to TOC
Prior to Moses’s death, Joshua, who had advocated with Caleb that the Israelites should enter the land the first time (Numbers 13), was appointed to succeed him as the leader of Israel (Deuteronomy 31:1−8). The book of Joshua narrates how the Israelites were successful in conquering the land that God had promised to their ancestors and the utter defeat of their enemies under Joshua (chapters 1−12). The remainder of Joshua is primarily concerned to describe the territories that were allotted to each of the tribes of Israel (13−22). It concludes with an exhortation by Joshua for the people to remain faithful to the covenant with the LORD and the Israelites renewing their commitment (23−24).
Unfortunately, according to Judges, the Israelites are unable to maintain their pledge of allegiance to Yahweh and the covenant. Judges records a series of cycles that begin with the notice that the people of Israel “did what was evil in the sight of the LORD” (2:11; 3:7, 12; 4:1; 6:1; 10:6; 13:1), which is followed by the judgment of the LORD through some form of oppression by a foreign nation. The Israelites then cry out for deliverance and the LORD heeds them and provides one of the “judges” to save them. The “judges” are more like military leaders or heads of clans than judges who serve any type of judicial function. The deliverance of the judge is followed by a period of relative peace until the cycle begins again.
Samuel provides the transition from the last of Israel’s judges (Samuel) to the beginning of the monarchy under Saul, which is solidified in the dynasty established by David the second king. There is not a smooth transition from Saul to David because, according to the text, Saul is rejected as king by Yahweh and David is initially anointed by Samuel as king prior to Saul’s death (1 Samuel 16). The remainder of 1 Samuel narrates the continuing conflict between Saul and David as the latter gains public favor and ultimately ascends to the throne.
David consolidates his power and establishes the united kingdom of Israel in 2 Samuel. His reign is not free of controversy, however, as his sons Absalom (2 Samuel 15) and Adonijah (1 Kings 1) both attempt to usurp the kingship. Solomon succeeds David (1 Kings 1−11), but the fragile alliance of the 12 tribes who were united under David is broken in the wake of his death. The rest of Kings describes the ongoing affairs of the divided kingdoms of Israel and Judah, which culminate in their eventual defeat. The northern kingdom of Israel is overcome by Assyria in 722 and Judah is conquered by Babylon in 587. Back to TOC
*Joshua The divine warrior and dividing the spoils
Is the God of the Hebrew Scriptures a god of war? Can this be the same God that is represented by Jesus in the New Testament? We cannot read through Joshua (or Samuel) without being confronted by these questions. Why is it that Joshua ordered, “The city and all that is in it shall be devoted to the LORD for destruction” (6:17)? Later, the LORD commands Joshua to destroy Ai, and Israel slaughters 12,000 people, “both men and women” (8:24−25). How do we explain the depiction of war in the Scriptures or of God as a divine warrior?
In accordance with what had been established in Deuteronomy, the book of Joshua opens with the divine commission for Joshua to lead the nation and take the land that the LORD was giving to the Israelites (1:2−9). Spies are sent to Jericho and are offered a safe haven by Rahab in return for the safety of her family when the Israelites invade (2:2−14). According to Rahab, “I know that the LORD has given you this land, and that dread of you has fallen on us, and that all the inhabitants of the land melt in fear before you” (2:9). Thus, the narrative affirms that the Israelites had always been capable of capturing the land, and it was listening to the fears of the first spies and their lack of trust in the LORD (Numbers 13) that had caused them to wander through the desert. The people cross the Jordan river encouraged by Joshua’s promise that “among you is the living God who without fail will drive out from before you the Canaanites, Hittites, Hivites, Perizzites, Girgashites, Amorites, and Jebusites” (3:10). Just as Moses had led them through the Red Sea, the Jordan River separates for the people to cross over (3:14−17). Then they are circumcised in obedience to the covenant God made with Abraham (Genesis 17:9−11) prior to their first battle with the inhabitants of Jericho. Back to TOC
Just before the passage that records the defeat of Jericho Joshua is described as having a theophany one evening when he encounters a man with a sword, who is “commander of the army of the LORD” (5:14). The warrior is unwilling to take sides when Joshua asks, “are you one of us?” but the narrative has already established that the LORD is going to deliver the land to his people. This image of God as a warrior occurs throughout the narratives that deal with the Israelites’ conflicts. For example, in the hymn that celebrates the defeat of the Egyptians we read, “The LORD is a warrior” (Exodus 15:3). Though the imagery raises questions, we can acknowledge that military conflict was part and parcel of the ancient world. Furthermore, the notion of divine aid is rooted in three theologically related ideas that are assumed by the narrative. First, the conquest of the land has been the subject of the text from the time that God had appeared to Abra(ha)m and promised that to give him a land. Second, the promise to Abraham was understood to benefit “all the families of the earth” (Genesis 12:3). In other words, there was at least some understanding by the people of Israel that their election by God was ultimately for the nations. Finally, Deuteronomy warned that the Israelites were a people “holy to the LORD your God” (7:6; 14:2, 21; 26:19; 28:9); therefore, they were to remain separate from the other nations in order to preserve their loyalty to Yahweh. For these reasons they were commanded not to make covenants or intermarry with the nations, and to demolish all of their places of worship (7:3−5). In order to have any chance to be the “treasured possession” (7:6) of the LORD and demonstrate this truth to the other nations there was an expectation that the nations would have to be removed from the land. Again Deuteronomy warns, “Take care that you do not forget the LORD your God” (8:11) and “Know, then, that the LORD your God is not giving you this land to occupy because of your righteousness; for you are a stubborn people” (9:6). The admonitions are also paired with the indictment against the nations that “it is rather because of the wickedness of these nations that the LORD is dispossessing them” (9:4).
In Joshua, then, the motive for removing the other nations from the land is based on the theological understanding that the Isrealites were to be seperated or (w)holy unto God. The admonitions to not forget the LORD and to stay away from any temptations certainly assume a fairly fatalistic assessment of human character, but that evaluation rings true for many societies throughout history. According to the Scriptures, God enables the Israelites to drive out the inhabitants of the cities so that they could inhabit them (Joshua 11:10−15). However, in the cases of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor, they were burnt to the ground and all the inhabitants were killed. Regardless of the way that one reads the Scriptures, these actions could be understood as ethically questionable and it is probably better to admit the ethical quandry than to attempt to explain the actions away. At the same time, it may be useful to recognize that history is replete with individuals and nations who have based their violent actions in the name of a god/God. The practice of associating one’s violent acts with the will of the divinity shows few signs of slowing down in our own time, which probably says more about the nature of humanity than it does about God.
The nature of the conquest Back to TOC
Reading Joshua as part of the Deuteronomistic History may also have important consequences for interpreting the whole matter of the relationship between God and war. If the form of the text that we know as the Deuteronomistic History originates from the period after the exile, because that is where 2 Kings (24:10−17) ends, then it may be better to understand that the text reflects hyperbole or glorified imagination about the conquest of the land. If the narrative of the conquest originates from a later period, it could be concluded that the book of Joshua serves in the Deuteronomistic narrative to explain to the readers at that time the way that the Israelites had prospered in the past when they had followed the laws of Deuteronomy more closely. It is true that Joshua is not just about obedience and success because there are instances where the people fail to keep the covenant (e. g. Achan keeps some possessions from Jericho in chapter 7, they end up making a covenant with the Gibeonites in chapter 8, and they fail to drive out all the people from the land). However, according to the narrative, Joshua is basically successful in his mission and a large portion of the book celebrates the dividing up of the land to the twelve tribes (13−22). Though Joshua does focus on the conquest of the land, there are other indications within the narrative that the conquest was not quite so easily accomplished. Several passages suggest that the territory was conquered by individual tribes over period of time rather than by a united force fighting for the whole nation. For example, in Joshua 15:13−15 we read how Caleb went up against Hebron and Debir, and 19:47 reports how the tribe of Dan had to fight to regain its territory. Several passages also describe different groups that were not driven out by Israel (15:63; 16:10; 17:11−13). These passages hint that
the emergence of the nation in the land might have been more complicated. They also seem to reflect more closely the situation as it is depicted in Judges 1 where the individual tribes fight for their territory.
Moreover, there is an additional reason to probe the intent of the narrative of the conquest. The known archaeological data does not support the military conquest as it is presented in Joshua. Whether one dates the exodus in the 15th or 13th century BCE, there is no evidence of a mass migration of people into Palestine at either time. Furthermore, though there are a few cities that exhibit some evidence of destruction, Jericho and Ai, which are the focal points of the early Israelite invasion (Joshua 6 and 8), exhibit no trace of being destroyed at that time. Indeed, excavations of Ai reveal that there was no settlement there from c.2300 BCE until c.1200. For these reasons, some scholars, who want to retain the historicity of the narrative, have argued for an incomplete conquest and that the narratives reflect historical incidents that were rewritten over the course of time.
Two other views that have been proposed to explain the exodus and conquest are the “peasant revolt” model and an “immigration” model. The former suggests that the city states were overthrown by the peasant laborers. This revolt was perhaps initiated by small numbers of Israelite slaves who were devoted to Yahweh and had escaped from Egypt. In its own way, this model retains something of an Israelite “invasion” and that it involved at least some military conflict. The immigration model, proposed by Alt, explains the origins of the nation by the gradual peaceful settlement of the hill country. In this model there is no notion of a military conquest at all, but it does reflect the archaeological evidence.
What can be known about the people and the land of Israel in the 13th century? William Dever points out that there were about 300 new villages that emerged at the end of the 13th century and the beginning of the 12th. Located predominantly in the central hill country, most were only a few acres in size and were not based on earlier settlements. These villages exhibited similar new developments in technology such as terracing the hills to protect against soil erosion and there were silos for storage of grain. One interesting archaeological datum is that these settlements exhibit almost no evidence of pig bones from the remains, which agrees with the Biblical injuction against the consumption of pork. The villages did not have walls for defense, there were no religious monuments or sanctuaries, and there were no grandiose structures that would be indicative of a governing authority. The main structures of the villages were small four-room houses in groups of two to four. The agrarian lifestyle assumed by these villages suggests that multi-generational families would have been the backbone of their society and economy. The population of this area was a mere 12,000 in the 13th century, but had increased to 55,000 by the 12th Century, and 75−80,000 by the eleventh century.
The archaeological evidence does not support the mass migration of Israelites from Egypt as it is portrayed in Exodus and the military conquest of the land as narrated in Joshua, but it is clear that a migration into the central hill country in Palestine began near the end of the 13th century and that the people who populated the area seemed to share features such that we could characterize them as having a common identity. Their small number would have generated interdependence between the villages, and the narrative assumes and affirms that their identity was linked to the worship of their God, Yahweh (Deuteronomy 7:7−9). Eventually, their growing numbers and the military threat posed by neighbors would have culminated in the desire to create a more centralized authority, i. e. a king, to act as their representative (1 Samuel 8:4). As we shall see below, the archaeological data is more closely reflected in the book of Judges than it is in Exodus − Joshua. Finally, there is one significant non-Biblical source that refers to the people of Israel during this period. It is a 10 foot stele (monument) from Thebes, Egypt dated to c.1210 BCE that celebrates the victories of the Pharoah Merneptah over his enemies. While referring to other nations such as Canaan and Ashkelon, the text specifically identifies that “Israel is desolated, his seed is not.” Therefore, it is a reasonable conclusion that the Egyptians perceived the Israelites to be a distinct people at the end of the 13th century. The Merneptah stele (see here) is the earliest known reference to the people of Israel.
The absence of archaeological data for the period that we are studying is not surprising given that we are concerned with understanding the origins of the Israelites over three thousand years ago. However, the comparative lack of data combined with the fact that the biblical narrative does not coincide well with what is known has led some scholars to question whether anything can be known about the origin of the Israelites and to discount the majority of the Pentateuch and Deuteronomistic History as a literary fiction. While we cannot simply ignore the fact that what we do know from archaeology does not support the biblical account about the exodus and conquest of the land, it may provide us with an opportunity to question our expectations of the narrative. The reality is that no amount of archaeological data could confirm or deny the belief that it was their God, Yahweh, who had given them the land. That is strictly a matter of faith. At the same time, it is quite common, even in our own day, for events to be embellished over time. Whether it is the proverbial “fish story” or larger than life characters such as George Washington or Babe Ruth, there can be a mystique about people and their lives that grows over time. It appears that the origins of Israel were much more humble than the narrative claims in parts, and there is also some balance to the presentation of the conquest in Joshua that is provided by the book of Judges. Back to TOC
*Judges Everyone does what is right in their own eyes
Juxtaposed to the narrative of the conquest in Joshua is what appears to be an alternative version of the occupation of the land. Though set in the period following the death of Joshua (1:1), Judges 1:1−2:5 describes how some of the tribes of Israel were unable to drive out all of the inhabitants from their territory. Furthermore, the focus is on the efforts of the individual tribes to drive out the inhabitants rather than referring to an army representing “all Israel” as it does in Joshua. A series of skirmishes and conflicts over time between small groups or tribes would appear to be a more likely explanation for Israel’s early attempts to occupy the land, particularly in light of the archaeological evidence. In addition, toward the end of the book it is noted several times, “In those days there was no king in Israel; all the people did what was right in their own eyes” (17:6; 18:1; 19:1). The book even ends with this refrain (21:25), which both serves to prepare for the beginning of the monarchy that is introduced in 1 Samuel and to underscore the lack of centralized authority among the people of Israel. The tribes of Israel may have engaged in conflicts independently as well as by forming ad hoc alliances at times.
Doing “what was right in their own eyes” describes a situation in which there was no governing authority or recognized leader for the people of Israel at that time. Immediately, we can realize some of the consequences that the lack of order and structure would have had on the society as a whole. Although teenagers fight for their freedom to “do as they please” we all know what a high school classroom can look like when there is a substitute teacher. Many people are unable to function well as individuals within a society without guidelines and a structure because of their inability to have self-discipline. As children and parents sometimes discover when university begins, without external forces to help regulate and monitor behavior some people have a tendency to self-destruct. The absence of a ruling authority in the land resulted in the indictment that Israel “did what was evil in the sight of the LORD” (2:11; 3:7, 12; 4:1; 6:1; 10:6; 13:1). Following each of these notices there is an announcement of judgment by the LORD through some form of oppression by a foreign nation. The Israelites then cry out for deliverance and the LORD heeds them and provides one of the “judges” to save them. The deliverance of the judge is followed by a period of relative peace until the cycle begins again. 2:11−23 provides something of a framework for the reader to understand the cycles of disobedience, punishment-repentance-deliverance that follow in the core of the book (2:6−16:31). The primary sin that leads to judgment is identified as abandoning the worship of Yahweh for other gods.
The history of the Israelites cannot be disconnected from the revelation and worship of their God, Yahweh. From the revelation of his name to Moses to the commandments forbidding idolatry, the text of the Hebrew Scriptures is centered around the relationship between Yahweh and his people, which is sealed by a covenant. Even though Deuteronomy warns the Israelites of the dangers of idols (7:25) and the consequences of worshipping them (8:19), the rest of the Deuteronomistic History, as well as the latter prophets, is filled with warnings and judgments against them for their failure to abandon them. Judges specifically identifies the worship of Baals in 2:11 as “evil in the sight of the LORD” and the worship of Baal as a rival to Yahweh is prominent throughout the rest of the Hebrew Scriptures (see 1 Kings 18:17−40). Back to TOC
The major judges
There are six major judges who are identified in the book, while six others (Shamgar, Tola, Jair, Ibzan, Elon, and Abdon) are barely more than mentioned. According to the narrative in 2:6−16:31, the judges are identified as leading the Israelites, as if Israel had a united army. Thus, the narratives about the specific judges exhibits some tension with 1:1−2:6 as well as the closing chapters of the book that focus on individual tribes. Most scholars understand that 2:6−16:31 were originally independent stories about local tribal heroes that were assembled as we now have them as part of the Deuteronomistic History. So, the exploits of the judges may have originally evolved from the various tribes, but within the framework of the Deuteronomistic History they provide the chronological bridge from the death of Joshua to the rise of the monarchy. As part of that history, the time of the judges demonstrates Israel’s failure to keep the covenant. As the narrative progresses toward the period of the monarchy, it remains to be seen whether the nation would fare any better with a king.
The narratives about the six major judges—Othniel, Ehud, Deborah, Gibeon, Jehthah, and Samson—vary in length and content. The story of Othniel (3:7−11) contains little more than the minor judges while that of Ehud focuses on the fact that he was left-handed when he drew the sword to kill King Eglon of Moab (3:15−23). Deborah (4:1−5:31) and Samson (13:1−16:31) are worthy of note for different reasons. The fact that Deborah, a woman, is named as a judge is significant given the fact that males dominated so much of ancient culture. Included in the story of Deborah is another woman, Jael, who kills Sisera with a tent peg. Their feats are celebrated in chapter five, which is a poem that commemorates the victory of Yahweh. It is also noteworthy that several of the tribes of Israel are specifically mentioned as not participating (5:15−8), which supports the view that the narratives actually reflect more about tribal conflict. Samson is introduced following the notice that Israel “did what was evil in the sight of the LORD” (13:1) and his story closes with the statement that “He had judged Israel twenty years,” but the narrative focuses primarily on his personal conflicts with the Philistines. Though the drama with Delilah is interesting and amusing (it seems a guy will do anything for a girl!), it has all the appearance of an independent narrative about the exploits of a heroic individual that has been grafted in with similar types of stories.
One of the passages that has particularly vexed interpreters is Jephthah’s vow in 11:30−31: “And Jephthah made a vow to the LORD, and said, ‘If you will give the Ammonites into my hand, then whoever comes out of the doors of my house to meet me, when I return victorious from the Ammonites, shall be the LORD 's, to be offered up by me as a burnt offering’" (11:31). The first person to greet him when he returns is his daughter (11:34), and the text relates that he “did with her according to the vow he had made” (11:39). Thus, it would appear that the passage supports child sacrifice. Although there is a tendency for more conservative scholars to explain this problem away, it is difficult to avoid what the text explicitly states. Back to TOC
Furthermore, the fact is that Jephthah initially makes a vow to offer up as a burnt offering the first person he met. The practice of human sacrifice is strictly forbidden in the Deuteronomistic History (Deuteronomy 12:31; 18:10 and see Leviticus 18:21; 20:2−5), so the text remains hard to explain both in the narrative as well as experientially. However, the prohibitions against the practice of child sacrifice demonstrate that the practice was part of the cultural environment, and there are other indications of the practice as well (Genesis 22:2; 2 Kings 17:17; 23:10; Ezekiel 20:26, 31).
*1 Samuel 1−15 The beginning of the monarchy and Saul, the first king
The opening chapters of 1 Samuel record the origin of the monarchy in Israel c.1020 BCE. As with the dual narratives about the beginnings of the people in the land, there are two competing depictions of the institution of the monarchy. One regards the monarchy as a rejection of the rule of Yahweh (8:5−8), while the other views it as a response to the external threat from the Philistines (4:1−2).
The narrative begins with a theme that is familiar from the patriarchal stories. Hannah, one of Samuel’s wives, is favored by her husband, but she is unable to bear children and scorned by her husband’s other wife (1:1−6). Hannah prays for a male child, and she vows that if her request is granted that she will dedicate him to the LORD’s service (1:11). The LORD responds to her petition, and after the wondrous birth of her child she brings him to the priest Eli at the shrine in Shiloh (1:27−28; 2:11). From his miraculous birth to hearing the voice of the LORD as a boy (3:1−11), Samuel is portrayed as the last great judge and a prophet to Israel (3:20; 7:3−8:22). He speaks for the LORD, even to the point of condemning the actions of King Saul (13:5−14; 15:10−31). During this period the Philistines had become a formidable military threat and had come to dominate Israel. The Philistines were five city states (1 Samuel 6:17: Ashdod, Gaza, Ashkelon, Gath, and Ekron) from the coastal plain along the border of the Mediterranean Sea that had formed a coalition. According to the narrative, the Philistines had routed the Israelites at Aphek (4:1−10) and it is clear that they eventually occupied much of Israelite territory (10:5; 13:3−4, 23). The strength of the Philistines was attributed to their superior iron weapons. They had such power that they were able to control Israel’s access to and use of metal (I Sam 13:19−22). Thus, the general picture at the time is that the Isrealite tribes were defenseless before the stronger and more united forces of the Philistines. There is a brief section that refers to Israel recovering its territory from the Philistines after responding to Samuel’s call to remove foreign gods and renew its worship of Yahweh (7:3−14), but this would appear to be an idealized account.
It is within the context of the dominance and continued threat of the Philistines that the “elders of Israel” approach Samuel in his old age and request to have a king (8:5). In addition to their inferior weaponry the Isrealites apparently lacked an organized military unit and the strong leadership necessary to guide their forces and combat their foe. Samuel’s displeasure at their request is not explained, though it may only be indicative of his pride being damaged at the recognition that he had no heir prepared to lead the people. Regardless of Samuel’s feelings, the demand is interpreted as a rejection of Yahweh as the ruler and warrior for the Israelites. As we have previously noted, it is difficult to be confident in any reconstruction of the origins of the people in the land and the extent of their previous military conflicts. However, if the Israelites did emerge in the land at the end of the 13th century and had grown to a fairly significant population (over 100,000) by then, it is quite possible that this was the first time that all the tribes had faced serious military opposition to their life as a nation. Presumably there was resistance to the institution of a monarchy by some of the Israelites, which is reflected in the consequences that Samuel outlined that would be part of having a king (8:11−17). Within the Deuteronomistic History Samuel’s warnings recall the words of Moses in Deuteronomy 17:14−20. Back to TOC
Saul, the first king
1 Samuel 9−11 relates how Saul became the first king. Once again, a close reading of the narrative presents difficulties for reconstructing events. Initially, Saul, the son of Kish, and a servant are on an errand to retrieve some lost donkeys (9:2−3). The servant suggests that they seek help from “a man of God” because “Whatever he says, always comes true” (9:6). Saul’s most pressing concern is whether they can pay for his service, but with the financial issues resolved they go to find Samuel (9:7−11). We can observe in this narrative that Samuel is depicted as something of a fortune-teller and does not have the prominent position that he holds earlier; nevertheless, he anoints Saul as a symbol that he will be ruler over Israel (10:1). Later on Samuel announces the choice of Saul publicly (10:17−21), though the use of drawing lots to pick out the reluctant Saul has suggested to some scholars that there appear to be separate traditions that have been brought together. Even after he has been chosen as king, on a third occasion Saul is returning from plowing in the field (11:5)—probably not an endeavor in which most kings would engage—when he is informed of a threat to the town of Jabesh-gilead. Saul rescues the city and subsequently he is made king at Gilgal (11:15).
Whatever the details of the exact process, the text affirms that Saul becomes the first king of Israel and he undertakes a campaign against the Philistines. Besides the defeat of the Ammonites at Jabesh-gilead, Saul has victories at Michmash against the Philistines (13:2−5; 23−4:23) and has other successes as well (14:47−48; 15:4−9). Despite the success Saul enjoyed as the military leader, as it stands the narrative condemns him.
The rejection of Saul occurs in two passages. In 13:8−15 Saul is condemned by Samuel, but there is no previous warning for Saul not to perform a sacrifice and there is no rejection of King David (2 Samuel 6:13) or King Solomon (1 Kings 3:15) when they later offer sacrifices. In fact, Saul waited seven days for Samuel and only offered the sacrifice as an encouragement to the Israelites who were characterized as in “distress” and “trembling” (13:6−7). Though the narrative does not inform us of the LORD’s view of the situation, Samuel relates that Saul’s kingdom “will not continue; the LORD has sought a man after his own heart” (13:14). In 15:1−33 Saul’s disobedience is clear because he is commanded to completely destroy the Amalekites and all they have, but instead keeps some animals to sacrifice and spares King Agag. It appears that the denunciation of Saul is related in the narrative to the favor that is demonstrated toward David. Soon after the rejection of Saul, David is introduced into the narrative and anointed by Samuel as the next king (1 Samuel 16:1−13). Moreover, in contrast to Saul, when Samuel is introduced to the sons of Jesse he is informed “Do not look on the outward appearance . . . for the LORD does not see as mortals see . . . but the LORD looks on the heart” (16:7). David is the son of Jesse who is chosen. Several more times in the Deuteronomistic History David is identified as the example of one whose heart was true to the LORD (1 Kings 11:4; 14:8; 15:3). If, as the text maintains, David was not related to Saul and he rose to power while Saul still reigned, it would be quite understandable that Saul
would be depicted in a negative light when compared to David who established a dynasty and passed on his reign to his son.
*1 Samuel 16−1 Kings 2 The reign of David Back to TOC
David was the eighth and youngest son of Jesse, and Samuel anointed him with oil as a symbol of his being chosen by the LORD (16:7−13). Shortly after being anointed as the next king the narrative has Saul and David meeting. Just as there appear to be several early traditions about Saul, there are brief vignettes about the introduction of David to the court of Saul. First, David is introduced as “skilful in playing [the lyre], a man of valor, a warrior” (16:18) and he is brought to play for Saul to ease him the pain of an evil spirit that had been sent to afflict him by the LORD. David finds such favor that Saul requests of Jesse that David be released to his service and we are told that David “became his armor bearer” (16:21). In the following episode David is reintroduced as the eighth son of Jesse (17:12), and is still a boy (17:33, 42) when he offers to meet the champion of the Philistines, Goliath of Gath, in a one-on-one match. David’s courage and faith are highlighted when he asserts “The LORD, who saved me from the paw of the lion and from the paw of the bear, will save me from the hand of the Philistine” (17:37), and when he is unable to wear any protective armor because “he was not used to them” (17:39). David is able to defeat the Philistine champion by hitting him with a stone from his sling and then cutting off his head (17:49−51). These traditions emphasize that David was a courageous warrior and trusted the LORD from his youth.
Ultimately, David’s fame and ability as a warrior provoked jealousy from Saul. The song “Saul has killed his thousands, and David his ten thousands” (18:7) is repeated several times in the narrative to underscore David’s exploits (21:11; 29:5) and favor with the people. Initially, Saul makes David a commander in his army in hope that he would be slain (18:12−13), but David enjoys even more success in war (18:30). David even enjoys the favor of Saul’s family. He marries Saul’s daughter Michal (18:17, 20) and is best friends with his son Jonathan (18:1−3; 19:1). The implications of David’s favored status are not lost on Saul who declares to Jonathan “as long as the son of Jesse lives upon the earth, neither you nor your kingdom shall be established” (20:31). Back to TOC
According to the narrative, eventually David has to flee from Saul and lives as something of a fugitive. He gathers his own group of mercenaries and seeks refuge among the Moabites (22:3−4), and even with Achish who was a Philistine. By this time, David had gathered a small army of six hundred men (27:1−2). While pretending to make raids on Judah, the narrative explains that David was actually making war against the enemies of Israel, but he would kill everyone to ensure that news of his activity would not get back to Achish (27:8−12). When the Philistines and Israelites are about to engage in a battle David is rescued from participating with the Philistines because other Philistine commanders question David’s loyalty (29:3−5). The praise that Achish lavishes on David for his honesty and integrity as well as David’s plea of innocence creates a narrative that endorses David’s deceitfulness (29:6−11). Throughout this period the people of Israel are under constant threat from the Philistines and Saul is divided between his battles with the Philistines and his concern to eliminate David (24:1−2).
David’s leadership of his small band of warriors brought him immense popularity with the people. Saul recognized that he was a threat to the throne and seems to have made his own attempts to kill him. When Saul and his sons are killed in a battle with the Philistines (31:1−7), David is provided with the opportunity to become king of Israel. The text does not portray David in any way as an opportunist, however. He had been anointed by Samuel and, in the conflict with Saul, he is always characterized as being noble in all that he did. Twice David has the opportunity to slay Saul (24:1−8; 26:1−12), but refuses to kill “the LORD’s anointed.” He even has the Amelkite who killed Saul executed, even though it was at Saul’s request (2 Samuel 1:15), as well as the men who asassinated Ishbaal (4:12).
In the wake of Saul’s death David ascends to the throne, but it happens in stages. First, David is anointed king by the people of Judah at Hebron (2 Samuel 2:1−4). However, in the northern area of Israel Ishbaal (a son of Saul) is made king over the northern tribes (2:8). Fighting continues between David's forces and Saul's followers (3:1), but gradually David overcomes his foes when Abner, the commander of Ishbaal’s forces dies. David is then made king by the elders of Israel who represent the north and reigns over all Israel for thirty-three years (5:3−5).
The united kingdom of Israel
To speak of a “united kingdom” or united monarchy is something of a fluid concept when describing ancient Israel. There are two reasons for this. First, excluding what is claimed by the narrative in Joshua, up until the period of David there had not been a point when the people of Israel had dominion over the land that the LORD had given them. It is evident prior to and throughout the reign of Saul that the Philistines were occupying the
land. In fact, it is David who is portrayed as ridding the land of Israel of its foes and solidifying its borders (5:17−25; 8:1−13; 10:1−19). The second reason that the “united kingdom” is a slippery description is because of the nature of the union within “Israel.” As the narrative relates, David is first made king over the southern kingdom of Judah and only later is acknowledged as king by the northern kingdom of Israel. Thus, there were two kingdoms−Judah in the south and Israel in the north that had come to represent the tribes of Israel in the land. Even when the elders of Israel make a covenant with David, the text states “at Jerusalem he reigned over all Israel and Judah thirty-three years” as if these are two continuing states. The two kingdoms co-exist through the reign of David’s son Solomon, but the fragile nature of this alliance is all too apparent when they easily divide following Solomon’s death (1 Kings 12).
Despite any political tensions that may have existed, David was successful in gaining and maintaining sovereignty over the land. One of his first moves, in an attempt to unite the kingdoms and to centralize authority, was to make Jerusalem the religious and political center. Jerusalem was still under the control of the Jebusites during David’s first years as king. By seizing control of Jerusalem David eliminated a possible base for foreign influence in the land, and provided a new base for the united kingdom of Judah and Israel that would have been regarded as more acceptable by both states for a political capital. Jerusalem was more northern than the southern city of Hebron and was centrally located in the land (2 Samuel 5:6−13). Soon after David transferred the ark, which was regarded as the symbol of the LORD’s presence with the people, to Jerusalem (6:1−17) and planned to build a permanent temple for it (7:1−2).
The plan to centralize worship at the one temple in Jerusalem is another theme that is picked up from Deuteronomy. Deuteronomy 12 describes how the pagan shrines are to be destroyed in the land and how the people “shall seek the [one] place that the LORD your God will choose out of all tribes as his habitation” (12:5; see also 12:11, 14, 18, 21). However, David is not the one who builds the temple. This privilege is reserved for his son. In something of a pun, the prophet Nathan declares to David that instead of him building a “house” for the ark, the LORD will make David a “house,” meaning a dynasty. The passage in 2 Samuel 7:11b−16 is worth quoting in full:
Moreover the LORD declares to you that the LORD will make you a house. 7:12 When your days are fulfilled and you lie down with your ancestors, I will raise up your offspring after you, who shall come forth from your body, and I will establish his kingdom. 7:13 He shall build a house for my name, and I will establish the throne of his kingdom forever. 7:14 I will be a father to him, and he shall be a son to me. When he commits iniquity, I will punish him with a rod such as mortals use, with blows inflicted by human beings. 7:15 But I will not take my steadfast love from him, as I took it from Saul, whom put away from before you. 7:16 Your house and your kingdom shall be made sure forever before me; your throne shall be established forever.
The passage expresses the promise that David’s house and his kingdom will last forever. This promise proved to be a short-lived one in the history of the nation, but it is an important theme that is found in the New Testament where Jesus is understood to be the new king who is a descendent from David (Matthew 1:1). Back to TOC
David’s domestic life
The remainder of the succession narrative is devoted to various incidents in David’s life, most of which do not paint a flattering portrait. 2 Samuel 11−12 records David’s infidelity with Bathsheba, which results in her pregnancy and increasingly desperate attempts by David to cover up his actions. From the initial affair to ordering that Bathsheba’s husband be sent to the frontlines in the hope that he would be killed, David’s conduct is depicted as a total abuse of his power. The depravity of his actions is declared by Nathan the prophet who compares David’s behavior to a rich man who takes the one lamb of a poor man to eat with a guest (12:1−4). One of the interesting points to note from this union is that though the child dies, David and Bathsheba produce another offspring, Solomon, the future king (12:24).
There is some fascinating political intrigue included in the Deuterono mistic History as long as one is reading the text closely. For example, there is an extended narrative dealing with David’s son Absalom (chapters 13−18), who at one point usurps the throne and forces David to flee for his life (15:7−18). The end of David’s life is also marked by another struggle for power between his sons. It begins with Adonijah, who was the oldest surviving son of David after Absalom was killed (1 Kings 1:6). It is clear that David is very old because a “young virgin” is brought to lie with him to help keep him warm (1:2−3). During this period, Adonijah invites numerous dignitaries to a banquet, but the prophet Nathan, the commander Benaiah, and Solomon are noticeable exclusions from the invitation list. Nathan is able to spot the political ambitions of Adonijah, so he comes up with a counter plot. Understanding the impending danger to Solomon and Bathsheba (and perhaps to himself as well!), he counsels Bathsheba to say to the king, “`Did you not, my lord the king, swear to your servant, saying: Your son Solomon shall succeed me as king, and he shall sit on my throne? Why then is Adonijah king?' Then, while you are still there speaking with the king, I will come in after you and confirm your words" (1:13−14). Bathsheba and Nathan follow through on this charade (1:17−27) and, in his old age, David falls for the ruse. David declares that Solomon will be king and makes arrangements for Solomon to ride his mule and for him to be declared king (1:28−37). Following the bloody but necessary events to insure that Adonijah and his followers would cease to be a problem in the future, the narrative concludes with the descriptive, yet understated comment: “So the kingdom was established in the hand of Solomon” (2:46).
*1 Kings 2−11 Solomon
Although it is impossible to be certain of the historicity of the events that are described concerning Saul, David, and Solomon, the portrayal of some of the proceedings at least offers reasons for some historical credibility. For example, the first two chapters of 1 Kings are refreshingly unapologetic in their depiction of the conspiracy by Nathan and Bathsheba as well as in the description of Solomon’s ruthless elimination of Adonijah and his supporters.
At the same time that we can observe events within the kingdom of Israel, there is no question that there is a positive evaluation of the achievements of David and Solomon in the text and that they enjoy the kindness of the LORD. When David is nearing his death he offers instructions to Solomon on how he should conduct himself. In language that reminds one of the
LORD’s charge to Joshua (Joshua 1:2−9), he is told to “Be strong, be courageous” and to keep the commandments and ordinances of the LORD (2 Kings 2:2−5). The favorable evaluation is reinforced in 1 Kings 3, which narrates how “Solomon loved the LORD” (3:3) and chose wisdom to rule (3:5−9) when he has a dream and the LORD offers him the opportunity to have anything he desires. The picture of life in the united kingdom of Israel during Solomon’s reign is also very positive at points. We read in 4:20, “Judah and Israel were as numerous as the sand by the sea; they ate and drank and were happy.” Due to the military accomplishments of David, Israel enjoyed relative peace with its neighbors. Solomon’s alliances provided the opportunity for greater trade, which enabled him to undertake an extensive building program that included an elaborate temple (Chs. 5−7).
Unfortunately, some of the same elements that contributed to peace and prosperity in the nation would provide the foundation for its downfall. Establishing and maintaining order over a state requires a great deal of administrative support and labor. Though the narrative hints at the pressing demands for organization under the rule of David (2 Samuel 8:15−18; 20:23−26), under Solomon the needs of administration increased. The methodical way by which Solomon secured his reign should not be lost in the interpretation of the events that led to the division of the kingdom.
Solomon's reign is depicted in glorious terms and praised for the accumulation of wealth and prosperity (4:20−34), but the sense of magnificence was obviously not shared by everyone. The enthusiastic and over confident record of Solomon’s accomplishments result in a narrative in which the reasons for the disenchantment that must have been growing among the populace almost seem lost on the narrator. The fact that Jereboam could so easily appear before Reheboam as the representative for Israel and secede so quickly from Judah after Solomon’s death (12:1−16) is indicative of the fragile nature of the alliance between Judah and Israel and the resentment that some of Solomon’s policies had created among the people.
*I Kings 12−2 Kings 24 The divided kingdom Back to TOC
After Solomon’s death in 922 BCE, the kingdom quickly divided. According to the narrative Jereboam asks Reheboam to ease up on the tax burden faced by the people (12:4−5). The “older men who had attended his father” advise Jereboam to respond favorably, but instead he listens to “the young men who had grown up with him” (12:9−11). It seems that they were reluctant to give up some of the taxes that were contributing to the lifestyle to which they had become accustomed. The remainder of 1−2 Kings follows the reigns of the various kings of Judah and Israel until their demise. Israel is conquered by King Tiglath-pileser of Assyria in 722 and taken into exile (2 Kings 15:29). Judah is able to last longer, but in 587 it is vanquished by King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylonia (24:10−17)
Once the decision had been made to secede from the union, Jereboam made two more very important decisions. First, Jereboam established a capital at Shechem and rebuilt Penuel (I Kings 12:25). Shechem was centrally located and had ancient cultic associations (Genesis 35:4) and perhaps some authoritative status (Joshua 24:1, 25). More important, Jereboam’s second decision was to establish alternative centers for worship for the Israelites at Bethel and Dan (12:29).
These choices were not random. Bethel is mentioned frequently in the patriarchal narratives and is specifically identified with altars and worship on several occasions (Genesis 31:13; 35:3, 7; 1 Samuel 10:3). Dan was chosen because it was the site of ancient cultic practices and had some claim to descent from Moses (Judges 18:30). Both of these actions are understandable, because it would have been necessary to provide a central political authority and religious centers for the northern state of Israel; but in the judgement of the text, this action by Jereboam “became a sin” (12:30). There is no reason supplied by the narrative to explain how this action is wrong, nor is there one discernible from the larger context. The assumption is that the worship of Yahweh anywhere but Jerusalem is unacceptable, but there was no divine command for David to move the ark from Shiloh to Jerusalem in the first place. The judgment against the action by Jereboam is emphasized in the text by the description that he manufactured two golden calves. The incident recalls the decision by Aaron to mold a golden calf in Exodus while Moses was on the mountain receiving the Ten Commandments (Exodus 32:2−6). Even Jereboam’s words, “These are your gods, O Israel, who brought you up out of the land of Egypt!" recall those of Aaron.
The polemic against Jereboam as the king of Israel is characteristic of what follows in the rest of the Deuteronomistic History. The kings of Israel are generally evaluated as bad because, like Jereboam, they build “high places” for idol worship. In fact, in almost every instance where the reign of the king of Israel is summarized it explicitly states that the king “did evil in the sight of the Lord” and adds the comment that the king was following the example of “Jereboam, the son of Nebat” (I Kings 15:26 [the text refers to “his ancestor” rather than Jereboam by name]; 15:33; 16:7, 19; 22:52; 2 Kings 3:2−3; 13:2, 11; 15:11, 18, 24, 28). When Israel eventually succumbs to Assyria and is taken captive in 722 the following summary is given:
When he [i. e. the LORD] had torn Israel from the house of David, they made Jeroboam son of Nebat king. Jeroboam drove Israel from following the LORD and made them commit great sin. The people of Israel continued in all the sins that Jeroboam committed; they did not depart from them until the LORD removed Israel out of his sight, as he had foretold through all his servants the prophets. So Israel was exiled from their own land to Assyria until this day (2 Kings 17:21−23).
The concerns of the narrative are evident not only in the condemnation of Israel, but also in other ways. For example, as we have discussed previously, the final form of the Deuteronomistic History originates from some time after the Babylonian exile of the southern kingdom of Judah. Most scholars associate the original writing of the Deuteronomistic History with the reign of King Josiah, and there is evidence to support this view at the point of the division of the kingdom. While Jereboam is offering incense at the altar in Bethel a man of God proclaims, “A son shall be born to the house of David, Josiah by name; and he shall sacrifice on you the priests of the high places” (1 Kings 13:2), which foreshadows the reforms instituted under the reign of Josiah in 2 Kings 23. The text was later edited at least one more time.
The kings of Israel Back to TOC
Generally speaking, the kings of Israel and the events surrounding their reigns do not receive much attention in the Deuteronomistic narrative. In most instances the description of the reign of a king begins with a cross reference to the reign of the king in Judah and the length of their reign. For example, after the death of Jereboam we read, “Nadab son of Jeroboam began to reign over Israel in the second year of King Asa of Judah; he reigned over Israel two years.” The reference to the time period is usually followed by the indictment that the king did what was evil in the sight of the LORD. Some additional information is normally included about each king. A frequent theme is that the individual engineers a coup, so the narrative sometimes focuses on the bloody incidents surrounding their coup and the way that the family of the former monarch had to be killed. One further note that is attached near the end of most descriptions of the reigns is that there is an official record of their deeds: “Now the rest of the acts of Nadab, and all that he did, are they not written in the Book of the Annals of the Kings of Israel?” (15:31; for some other examples, see 14:19; 16:14, 20, 27; 2 Kings 1:18; 10:34; 13:8).
The division of Israel and Judah also coincides historically with the emerging power of Assyria to the north. Assyria’s dominence comes more to the fore in 2 Kings leading up to the eventual conquest of Israel, but Assyria plays a significant role when it comes to comparing the biblical record with other civilizations. Following Jereboam there are three changes of succession in 50 years until there is some stability for three generations beginning with Omri. We do not know much about Omri (1 Kings 16:21−28), but the lasting influence of his dynasty is important because Assyrian records refer to the House of Omri. The Black Obelisk of Shalmanezer III (see here), who was king of Assyria in 858−824, records two separate incidents with the kings of Israel. In one, Ahab helped stop Shalmanezer’s campaign against the Syrian states. In the other, it is recorded that King Jehu had to give tribute to Shalmanezer (841 BCE). The events are recorded in cuneiform writing at the bottom of the obelisk and some have captions on the upper part. Five different events, each one having four captions (one on each side of the obelisk), are depicted on the upper part. Jehu’s rendering of tribute is portrayed on the second from the top. After the Merneptah Stele the Black Obelisk is the next earliest non-Israelite record that offers a parallel to people in the Scriptures. It is also worth noting that neither of the events that are recorded on the obelisk are mentioned in the biblical accounts.
One of the kings of Israel whose reign receives more attention is Ahab, the son of Omri. Ahab married Jezebel (16:31) the daughter of the King of Tyre, which solidified a political alliance and the trade between the two nations. The more important consequence of Ahab's marriage from the perspective of the narrative was that Ahab and Jezebel facilitated apostasy from Yahweh. Jezebel was a devout worshipper of Baal and Asherah (18:19) and she imported her worship to Israel. A temple to Baal was built in Samaria (16:32), and the text also refers to erecting a sacred pole, which probably refers to the worship of Asherah. The bulk of the remainder of I Kings (chapters 16−22) concerns events within Ahab’s reign, though the whole narrative does not focus specifically on him.
The apostasy of the royal court and Israel is brought to a head during a drought that had lasted for more than two years (18:1). Elijah the prophet issues a challenge to the four hundred and fifty prophets of Baal in order to see whose God could bring down fire from heaven and consume a sacrifice. At Mount Carmel the prophets of Baal dance from morning until afternoon, but without success (18:20−29). Elijah has buckets of water poured over the offering and altar, but after his prayer for Yahweh to answer so that it might be “known that you are God in Israel,” the “fire of the LORD fell and consumed” everything (18:36−38). As a response, the people seize the prophets of Baal and Elijah has them killed. Following his victory, Elijah announces that rain is coming and the drought ends (18:41−44). However, despite the fact that he is the recipient of the LORD’s favor, Elijah flees when word reaches him that Jezebel is out to get him (19:2−3). Jezebel’s influence must have been considerable given the way that she is portrayed as having such power. Her infamy is secured in the Israelite tradition because she is the only female whose death is preserved (perhaps celebrated) in such gruesome details (2 Kings 9:30−37).
The fall of Israel Back to TOC
The events leading up to Israel’s demise and the role played by Assyria are fairly well chronicled in the biblical narrative. The political instability in Israel combined with the rising power of Assyria guaranteed that Israel would eventually fall. Tiglath-Pileser III seized the throne of Assyria in 745 and reigned until 727. Under his leadership the Assyrian empire extended its influence as far south as Babylon where he was crowned king in 729. 2 Kings 15:19−20 records that King Menahem of Israel (745−736) imposed a tax on the wealthy to pay the king of Assyria. The text names the king as Pul (15:19), but Tiglath-pileser is referred to as Pulu in a list of Babylonian kings. By this time Assyria is seriously encroaching on Israel, who respond by supporting a coalition of states that were attempting to repel the Assyrians. King Pekah of Israel (737−732) and Rezin of Syria request Ahaz of Judah to join their coalition, but when Ahaz refuses they besiege Jerusalem in an attempt to depose Ahaz. Ahaz seeks aid from Tiglath-pileser (2 Kings 16:5−9), who moves to restore order to the region. In the aftermath, according to Assyrian records, Tiglath-pileser replaced Pekah as king of Israel with Hoshea, though it only states in 1 Kings 16:30 that “Hoshea son of Elah made a conspiracy against Pekah son of Remaliah, attacked him, and killed him.”
It would appear that Hoshea owed his political position to the Assyrians, but a few years later he refused to pay his tribute. Tiglath-pileser’s successor Shalmanezer V moved against Hoshea but the fall of Jerusalem was overseen by Shalmanezer’s successor, Sargon II in 722. The wealth and power of the Assyrians is evident in the ruins from their cities (see the reliefs from the Palace of Sennacherib here and here).
Prophets, the messengers of Yahweh
Today, the word prophet is sometimes used to describe a dynamic or charismatic individual. Typically, the person is declaring a message that is in some way counter-cultural and may be linked with some divine or religious authority. For example, Martin Luther King Jr.’s legacy is his leadership of the civil rights movement. Many people would regard his leadership and advocacy for human rights as prophetic at that time. He was also a Protestant minister. In other cases, we use the term prophet in a more humorous way to refer to someone’s ability to predict the future: “You must be a prophet!” Both of these ideas are evident in the biblical literature, though it is often incorrectly assumed that the main function of a prophet (sometimes referred to as a “man of God”) was to predict the future. In addition to the writing prophets (like Isaiah and Jeremiah) , whose works we will encounter in the next chapter, the books of Samuel and Kings identify a number of individuals and groups as prophets. There are a variety of aspects to the role and function of prophets that can be discerned from the narrative, but in Samuel−Kings their principal task is to act as the spokesperson for the LORD.
In some cases the reference to a prophet in Samuel-Kings is inconsequential to the story, but in many cases it is the prophet who speaks for Yahweh and the prophet’s message comes at crucial points. For example, the unusual circumstances of Samuel’s birth (1 Samuel 1:9−18) and the evening when he hears the voice of the LORD speaking to him (3:2−14) prepare for the classification of Samuel as a prophet (3:20); therefore, what he says and does is grounded in the notion that he has been especially chosen by the LORD for this purpose. When Samuel responds to the Israelites’ request for a king, he does so as a prophet (8:11−18). Likewise, he is the one who is empowered to anoint Saul as the first king (9:15−17; 10:1; 11:15), and when he declares that Saul has been rejected (13:13−14; 15:10−23) he does so as the prophet of the LORD. Samuel anoints David as the next king (16:11−13), but after Samuel’s death Nathan becomes the new messenger for the LORD. Nathan is the one who announces that the LORD will make David’s house a dynasty (2 Samuel 7:12−17) and he is the one who confronts David regarding his affair with Bathsheba (12:1−12). In the case of Samuel and Nathan, their role as spokespersons overlapped with roles as counsellors to the king.
In 1 and 2 Kings there is a significant portion of the narrative that is centered on the prophets Elijah and Elisha, particularly as it is expressed in someform of conflict with the king and his other prophets. Elijah’s and Elisha’s messages are ones of correction and doom to the kings and people who have abandoned Yahweh as their God. Elijah is introduced in 1 Kings 17:1 and acts as the LORD’s foil against Ahab and Jezebel. Elisha first appears as Elijah’s apprentice in I Kings 19:19, but does not take a prominent role until the death of Elijah in 2 Kings 2:9−11. There are a significant number of miraculous events attributed to Elisha in 2 Kings 2−6 and Elisha had no small part in the overthrow of the Omride dynasty. Ahab was succeeded by his son Ahaziah (850−849, I Kings 22:51) who was succeeded by Jehoram (2 Kings 1:17). Jehoram was recuperating from wounds that he received in battle in Jezreel when Elisha had one of the prophetic group anoint Jehu king in order to incite a coup (2 Kings 9:2−6, 12−13).
Although the narrative tends to focus on the individual exploits and activities of the individual prophets, it seems clear that the prophets were part of a group and were often associated with the royal court. Samuel, Nathan, and the prophets of Baal had close connections with the king. In another instance, King Jehoshaphat of Judah and Ahab were considering going to war against Aram and they consult the nearly four hundred prophets of Israel. All the prophets give the go-ahead to their plan (1 Kings 22:6) except Micaiah who predicts they will fail. Micaiah declares that the LORD has put a lying spirit in the mouth of the other prophets (1 Kings 22:20−22), but he too is one of the court prophets. 2 Kings 2:3, 5 refer to companies of prophets who were stationed at the important shrines in Bethel and Jericho, and it seems that Elisha inherited the leadership of a group of prophets from Elijah (6:1−4). Finally, it is worth noting that the Jewish Scriptures identify three women as prophets: Miriam (Exodus 15:20), Deborah (Judges 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kings 22:14).
The kings of Judah Back to TOC
The description of the reigns of the kings of Judah begins similar to the kings of Israel. In most instances the description of the reign of a king begins with a cross reference to the reign of the king in Israel and the length of their reign. For example, after the death of Reheboam we read, “Now in the eighteenth year of King Jeroboam son of Nebat, Abijam began to reign over Judah. He reigned for three years in Jerusalem”(15:1−2). Normally, at the end of the account of each reign there is a reference to their being more information about the king in the “Book of the Annals of the Kings of Judah” as well. However, there are several differences between the descriptions of the reigns of the kings of Judah and those of Israel. First, when the description begins with the dating of the reign, it is immediately followed by the name of the king’s mother. In the case of the Judean kings, they all trace their lineage on their father’s side back to David, but we are provided the mother’s name as well. Second, the evaluation of the reigns by the Judean kings is at least somewhat positive almost half of the time. In six cases the king is described as “doing what was right in the sight of the LORD” even though the positive is followed by a critique that they failed to remove the “high places” (1 Kings 15:11, 14; 22:43; 2 Kings 12:2−3; 14:3−4; 15:3−4; 34−35). Furthermore, the reigns of Hezekiah (2 Kings 18:3−7) and Josiah (22:2) receive no such disclaimers, so the reigns of eight kings are given at least a partial “thumbs up.” Despite the more positive tendency among the kings of Judah, eleven of them are evaluated as doing “what was evil in the sight of the LORD,” and Manasseh is especially condemned (2 Kings 21:2−9). Finally, though there are a few instances where attempts are made to assassinate any potential threats for the throne (2 Kings 11:1; 21:23), according to the narrative the reigns of the kings of Judah are not marred by nearly as much infighting and bloodshed as those in Israel.
Josiah and the book of the law
As noted in the preceding paragraph, Hezekiah and Josiah are distinguished above all the other kings by the lavish praise they receive. In fact, it is stated that Hezekiah “trusted in the LORD the God of Israel; so that there was no one like him among all the kings of Judah after him, or among those who were before him” (2 Kings 18:5). Josiah, son of Amnon, is later described in similarily lofty terms as Hezekiah (23:25), though the praise is particularly connected to the religious reforms he instituted during his reign. According to the narrative, the “book of the law” is discovered by Hilkiah the priest in the eighteenth year of Josiah’s reign or 621 BCE (2 Kings 22:3, 8). Huldah the prophetess is consulted and her word from the LORD is, “I will indeed bring disaster on this place and on its inhabitants−all the words of the book that the king of Judah has read. Because they have abandoned me and have made offerings to other gods” (22:16−17). The reform is centered around the worship of Yahweh and how that worship had been corrupted by syncretism with other gods. Josiah reads the book of the law and makes a covenant to “follow the LORD” and “to perform the words of this covenant that were written in this book” (23:3). By having “all the people” join in this covenant the narrative recalls the instructions of Moses in Deuteronomy 31:11−13 and the renewal of the covenant by Joshua in 24:24. The specific reforms of Josiah included removing all the objects of worship from the temple that were dedicated to Assyrian and Canaanite gods like Baal and Asherah as well as the priests who facilitated the idolatrous worship (23:4−6). The reform extended throughout Judah to include all objects of foreign worship, including the “high places,” and the priests who engaged in these idolatrous practices (23:8). The intensity of the reform is apparent in the language that is employed to describe what is done to the altars and cultic objects. They are “burned,” “beat into dust,” and “broke in pieces.” Altars that had been erected by previous Judean kings such as Ahaz, Manasseh, and several by Solomon, are included in the great purging (23:12−14).
Most scholars connect the reforms of Josiah with the writing of the Deuteronomistic History. There are a number of reasons for this, but they are based primarily on the narrative and an important assumption. In the first place, it is assumed that the final written form of Joshua to 2 Kings was a single literary unit to explain the history of the Israelites in the light of the Deuteronomic laws. Scholars accept varying amounts of historical sources and traditions that the final author(s) may have used in composing this document. However, in favor of this basic assumption is the repeated use of certain language (e. g. “Be strong and courageous”) and themes (e. g. the rise of the monarchy, and the failure to maintain the covenant with Yahweh), as well as the speeches and dialogue of the main characters (Samuel, David, Nathan, Solomon) that refer to these common themes. Second, Josiah is portrayed as a hero of reforms that uphold the ideals of the Deuteronomistic laws and his reign is shortly before the time of Judah’s conquest. Since the Deuteronomistic History puts so much emphasis on Josiah, but the exile occurs after Josiah’s reign it has been argued by Frank M. Cross that the bulk of the work comes from the period of Josiah. Cross argues that the main edition of the Deuteronomistic History was edited later during the exile, which accounts for the basically negative conclusion of the book and the people in exile. Third, the narrative has a distinct glorification of Josiah. We have already mentioned that the veneration of Josiah is foreshadowed in 1 Kings 13:2. Josiah is also compared to David, who is epitomized as the ideal king. In 2 Kings 22:19 we read that Josiah’s “heart was penitent” and in 2 Kings 23:3 he is determined to follow the decrees of the LORD “with all his heart and all his soul.” These references to his heart recall the words about David who is the one who has a heart for the LORD (1 Samuel 16:7), and finally, in 2 Kings 23:25 we read, “Before him there was no king like him, who turned to the LORD with all his heart, with all his soul, and with all his might, according to all the law of Moses; nor did any like him arise after him.”
The themes and literary devices that are perceptible in the books of Joshua to 2 Kings and their relationship to Josiah are drawn together by one nagging question: “If the book of the law was discovered by Hilkiah in the temple during the reign of Josiah, what had been the basis for the religious practices of the people of Judah prior to that discovery?” According to the narrative, the people of Judah had been living without the law for a considerable period, because the “discovery” of the law initiated such sweeping national reforms. It had at least been long enough that no one had any memory that such a law even existed. This forsaking of the law would also be another example of the ways that the commandments in Deuteronomy had been breached. Deuteronomy 17:18−19 states when the new king is chosen in the land, “he shall have a copy of this law written for him” and “he shall read in it all the days of his life.”
In some way the bold claim that there was no law has to be reconciled within the literary context as well as with what it might contribute to any historical claims elsewhere in the text about the giving of the law and what we might derive from them. If we take the passage at face value that the law was only (re)discovered at the time of Josiah, then we have to explain the purpose of the whole narrative and how it relates to the law. That means we must decide the size of the literary unit to which 2 Kings belongs as well as what it is saying about the law. It seems as though Joshua−2 Kings is telling the story of Israel’s failure to keep the covenant and the gradual demise and exile of Israel and Judah. Under Josiah they rediscover the law and the laws and themes that reappear throughout Joshua−2 Kings seem to reflect the concerns that are expressed in the book of Deuteronomy. Therefore, scholars conclude that Deuteronomy is the book of the law that was “discovered” in Josiah’s time; the discovery by Josiah is a literary device to emphasize the importance of the book of Deuteronomy and the reforms initiated under Josiah. On this basis, we are better able to understand the reconstruction of the Pentateuch by those scholars who accept the documentary hypothesis as it was outlined in the previous chapter, because Deuteronomy is believed to have been written during Josiah’s reign.
Regardless of one’s position on the date when Deuteronomy was written, it is obvious that the above reconstruction raises serious questions regarding the authorship of Deuteronomy and the whole Pentateuch. Due to the historical difficulties that we have noted in the text there are some scholars who would date the whole Pentateuch and the Deuteronomistic History after the exile. Other scholars who are more conservative do not accept the later dating of the book of Deuteronomy or the Pentateuch and seek to connect them more closely to Moses. However, if the book of the law that was discovered by Josiah is not some form of the book of Deuteronomy, we would need to explain what “book of the law” was found. In addition, we would still be faced with explaining the assumption of the text that the law had not been in use prior to this discovery.
The fall of Judah Back to TOC
The reign and death of Josiah coincides with the emergence of Babylon as a power in the Middle East. Babylon conquered Assyria in 612 BCE and Judah lay nearby to the west. Before the end of the seventh century King Jehoiakim was already paying tribute to Nebuchadnezer of Babylon. According to the narrative (24:2) Jehoiakim refused to pay, and Babylon besieged the city. Jehoiakim died before the siege was over, and his son, Jehoiachin, was taken captive (24:11−15) along with many other leaders in Jerusalem in 597. 2 Kings and the Deuteronomistc History concludes with Nebuchadnezer installing Zedekiah as king, but Zedekiah eventually led his own rebellion that led to the destruction of Jerusalem and captivity in Babylon in 587. Thus, the narrative ends with Judah in exile as a consequence of their failure to remain faithful to the covenant.
Back to TOC
Summary
1. Based on the common themes in the early prophets and that their failures are so closely related to the laws as they are expressed in Deuteronomy, the books of the early prophets (Deueronomy, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings) are normally considered to be component parts of one literary unit: the Deuteronomistic History.
2. Many scholars believe that the majority of the Deuteronomistic History was written during the reign of Josiah to support the reforms that he initiated.
3. As a whole, the narration of the rise and demise of the nation of Israel in the Deuteronomistic History suggests that the final form offers a theological explanation for the collapse of Israel (722) and Judah (587): they sinned by failing to keep covenant faithfulness with their LORD, Yahweh.
4. The early history of Israel as told in Joshua and Judges reflects some differences. The notion of the conquest in Joshua is not supported by archaeological evidence, though there was a significant immigration into the land at the end of the 13th century BCE.
5. The history of Israel unfolds as the history of two states—Israel and Judah—whose tribes begin to be united under King Saul. Saul battles the Philistines, but it is David who succeeds in solidifying the borders of the united kingdom. Under Solomon, the fragile union dissolves.
6. The story of the divided kingdom focuses on their apostasy and worship of gods other than Yahweh. All of the kings of northern Israel are portrayed as evil while more than half of the southern kings of Judah are as well. Israel is exiled by the Assyrians in 722/1 BCE and Judah by the Babylonians in 587/6 BCE.
7. Prophets are spokespersons for the LORD. Elijah and Elisha are particularly prominent in the narrative in Kings as leaders against the apostasy of Israel.
Content Questions
1. As stated in the narrative of the book of Joshua, what prevented the Israelites from entering the promised land in the book of Numbers?
2. What are the stages in the cycle of events that repeat themselves in the book of Judges? What is the relationship between this and the promise given to the Israelites by God in Deuteronomy?
3. What in the narrative of the book of Judges suggests that Israel did not have one centralized authority for the whole nation? What effect did this have on the Israelites?
4. What are the two competing depictions of the institution of the monarchy in 1 Samuel? Why might Samuel have opposed the Israelites request for a King?
5. What is the relationship between Saul and David? How is Saul's appointment as king and view of David different from David's anointing and the way David viewed Saul?
6. David is appointed as King of Judah and Israel. What does this say about the unification of the kingdom up to this point? What significant move does David make to further ensure the unification of the kingdom? How does this reflect the influence of Deuteronomy in the Deuteronomistic History?
7. What is the cause of the division of the kingdom in 1 Kings? In what ways may Solomon have contributed to the division?
8. Describe the Deuteronomistic History.
9. Describe the characteristics of prophets as shown in Samuel and Kings.
Analytical or Discussion Questions
1. The book of Joshua describes Israel's conquest of Palestine and the subsequent division of the land amongst the twelve tribes. What archaeological evidence is there to support this claim? Considering that the book of Joshua may have been written several centuries after the events occurred and that Israel was in captivity at this time, what reasons can you give for the way that Israel is portrayed in the book of Joshua?
2. Is there a just war? If so, what would be sufficient cause? If not, why not?
3. History is filled with nations and peoples who have been dispossessed of their land. For example, native peoples had their land and life taken away over a period of hundreds of years in North America. What is our responsibility for the actions of the past? Can people be restored to what was once theirs? Is there a moral obligation to restore the proceeds from a military conquest?
4. How would you describe the relationship between archaeology and what can be known about the Biblical texts?
5. If the historicity of the narrative in Joshua is not verifiable, how may the story relate the truth of the liberation of the people of Israel and their origins in the land of Palestine?
6. David is portrayed as a man after God’s heart. How does that underlying assumption influence the way that his actions are interpreted in the text and by readers today?
7. David undertook to strengthen the relationship between the state and religion. Is a policy that emphasizes the separation of religion and state better than one that links the two? Why is the separation of religion and state difficult to maintain in practice?
8. If the final form of the Deuteronomistic History originates from some time after the Babylonian exile of the southern kingdom of Judah, is it reasonable to conclude that the author of the text is someone from Judah? In what ways is that reflected in the narrative?
9. The books of 1 and 2 Kings describe the history of the Kings of Judah and Israel from Solomon to the captivity. What about the composition of these books, as part of the Deuteronomistic History, may account for the difference in portrayal of the kings of Judah versus the kings of Israel?
Additional Resources
Campbell, Anthony F. and Mark A. O’Brien. Unfolding the Deuteronomistic
History. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2000.
Dever, William. What Did the Biblical Writer’s Know and When Did They
Know It? Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001.
King, Philip J. and Lawrence E. Stager. Life in Biblical Israel. Louisville,
KY: Westminster John Knox, 2002.
Magness, Jodi. The Archaeology of the Early Islamic Settlement in Paletine.
Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2003.
Provan, Iain W., V. Philips Long, Tremper Longman III. A Biblical History
of Israel. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2003.
For excellent information and one of the best collections of images from the Ancient Near East visit the website for the British Museum at
http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk.
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Chapter Four
The Later Prophets of the Hebrew Scriptures
What you will find in this chapter
*Introduction to the Later Prophets
*The Nature of the Prophetic Literature
*Amos and Hosea The Day of the Lord is coming!
*Isaiah Assyria is a threat but God is with us
*Micah, Nahum, and Zephaniah The decline of Assyria
*Jeremiah Doom and gloom for Judah
*Ezekiel Encouragement for the exiles
*Habakkuk and Obadiah The end of Jerusalem
*Haggai and Zechariah Rebuilding hope
*Malachi, Joel, and Jonah
A fairly common misconception shared by Christians about the later prophets is that the content of these books is primarily concerned with predicting future events. In its most basic form there is a simple equation assumed to exist: prophetic literature equals predictive literature. This understanding of prophecy has currency more generally among the wider public as well. Tabloids prey on people’s fears with sensationalist headlines that begin “BIBLE PREDICTS . . .” in the same way that Nostradamus is quoted as an authority who foretold contemporary events.
Among more conservative Christians, the understanding of the predictive element is even more narrowly defined. The prophets predict things particularly about Jesus and about eschatological events leading up to the end of time and history as we know it. In other words, prophecy is about predicting events in the distant future. Now, before I continue, we need to get something straight, especially for readers who may have attended churches that spread this rumor about prophecy=prediction. I am NOT stating that there is no concern for prediction of the future in the prophetic literature. I am not aware of any scholar who would deny that element. At the same time, I am unaware of any scholar who would argue that the prophetic writings are primarily about predicting events in the distant future. There is a whole spectrum of opinions about the element of prediction in the prophetic literature, including scholars who would argue that there are some passages that are concerned with prediction of the distant future; but I know of no scholar who believes it is the defining characteristic of prophetic literature. This peculiar notion about the contents of the books can be quickly discarded in the wastebasket once we actually read the books in question.
The misunderstanding about the contents of the prophetic literature is one of the issues that is at the heart of attaining a better understanding of these books. While it is not the intention of this introduction to persuade the reader to come to a particular stance about the nature of the prophetic literature and the degree of prediction in the contents, the present chapter provides a brief introduction to each of the later prophets and discusses issues that are relevant to the interpretation of the literature. In this way, the reader can make a more informed decision about the function of the prophetic writings.
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*Introduction to the Later Prophets
The term Later Prophets designates those books in the Hebrew Scriptures that are named after prophets such as Isaiah and Jeremiah. The “major” prophets are Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel while the “minor” prophets designates the twelve other books that are much shorter in length. The book of Daniel is often understood to be a prophetic book, but it is actually listed among the Writings in the Hebrew Bible. There are times when we employ the terms “prophet” and “prophecy” interchangeably because there is an association between the contents of a book with the prophet. Such a practice is quite common. At the same time, the equation of the prophet with the prophecies simplifies data that is much more complex. For example, these prophets are sometimes referred to as the “writing prophets,” but this terminology is misleading in our day because most people draw the conclusion that it implies that the prophets wrote out these books as they have come down to us in the texts. Such a conclusion is reasonable, but it is incorrect. In reality, the specific prophecies (or oracles) by the prophets were in most cases initially delivered verbally and heard (not read) by those who were addressed. The oral setting for the oracles is evident in a number of ways. For instance, the texts assume an oral presentation. The language refers to speaking and prophesying, not writing. Hosea 5:1 begins, “Hear this, O priests” (see 4:1) and many other oracles begin, “Thus says the Lord” (Isaiah 45:1, 18). The narratives also present prophets appearing before their recipients and speaking. The oracles are also in a poetic form, which betrays their origins. Poetry would be more easily remembered than prose. Comparisons with other ancient near eastern prophets reflect similar patterns and
descriptions of prophets who gave oracles. There are a few occasions where the prophets refer to writing a message, but it did become more prevalent until later stages. One obvious incident is when Jeremiah is instructed to write on a scroll (ch. 36:2) and has to make a new edition after Jehoiakim burned the first scroll (36:27). A book like Ezekiel was primarily a written composition.
Recognizing that these prophecies were first spoken by the prophets and heard by the audience is actually very beneficial when it comes to reading and interpreting the prophets because it helps us to realize that many of them did not originate from the same time and place. We live in a culture that has been heavily influenced by the print medium and we have particular notions of what constitutes a “book.” A book normally represents a unified work that develops an idea or a story in an orderly and comprehensive fashion. For this reason, reading some sections of the prophets can be a very frustrating experience. We expect a coherent story line that moves smoothly from one paragraph to the next, but that is not what we always get! Instead, there are frequent occasions where a new oracle or biographical material is introduced very abruptly into the context. On some occasions the intrusion is very clear. For example, chapter 20 of the book of Isaiah is an oracle of judgment against Egypt and Ethiopia, but chapter 21 then begins with, “The oracle concerning the wilderness and the sea.” Two more oracles are introduced in 21:11 and 21:13, and chapter 22 then follows with an oracle “concerning the valley of vision,” which appears to be about the destruction of Jerusalem in Judah (22:8). In a span of three chapters we have divergent material that comes from very different times and settings.
It was only at a later time that the oracles were written down and then became parts of larger literary units. There were no set rules for the way that the oracles were organized, but, as we would expect, they were usually grouped some way. Sometimes they were clustered on the basis of their subject, such as judgment or salvation. On other occasions they were collected together based on key words, themes, or by the nations who were the subject of the oracles. We are often able to distinguish between individual oracles because many are marked with a beginning like “Thus says the Lord” or “An oracle concerning. . .” and/or they close with words like “says the Lord.” For example, the book of Amos begins with eight oracles that share the very same beginning, “Thus says the Lord: for three transgressions of [name of nation] and for four, I will not revoke the punishment.” In Amos 5:18; 6:1, and 6:4 there are three oracles that all begin with the word, “Alas!” Reading the individual oracles of a prophet as part of a book in which the oracles have been connected together and supplemented with additional material about the prophet helps us to realize that there is less of a direct relationship between the prophet and the contents of the book in his name.
Isaiah 2:1−4
In days to come the mountain of the Lord's house shall be established as the highest of the mountains, and shall be raised above the hills; all the nations shall stream to it.
Many peoples shall come and say,
"Come, let us go up to the mountain of the LORD, to the house of the God of Jacob; that he may teach us his ways and that we may walk in his paths." For out of Zion shall go forth instruction, and the word of the LORD from Jerusalem. He shall judge between the nations, and shall arbitrate
for many peoples;
they shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning hooks; nation shall not lift up sword against nation, neither shall they learn war any more.
Figure 4.2
Micah 4:1−4
In days to come the mountain of the Lord's house shall be established as the highest of the mountains, and shall be raised up above the hills.
Peoples shall stream to it, and many nations shall come and say:
"Come, let us go up to the mountain of the LORD, to the house of the God of Jacob; that he may teach us his ways and that we may walk in his paths." For out of Zion shall go forth instruction, and the word of the LORD from Jerusalem. He shall judge between many peoples, and shall arbitrate
between strong nations far away;
they shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning hooks; nation shall not lift up sword against nation, neither shall they learn war any more;
4:4 but they shall all sit under their own vines and under their own fig trees, and no one shall make them afraid; for the mouth of the LORD of hosts has spoken.
There are several reasons why we do not notice the disjointed nature of the text as frequently as we might. First, the editors of the oracles did make some transitions and add material in places in order to provide a context and smooth the transitions from one oracle to the next. Second, as readers we intuitively derive connections between the oracles because we learn to read texts in a linear fashion. In other words, our natural instinct is to read the different units as if they belonged together. Third, many of the infelicities have been glossed over by the way the texts have been divided into chapters and by the subheadings that have been introduced by publishers of Bibles. If it is the start of the new chapter we are not startled that the content has no relationship to what was in the previous chapter. But remember, originally there were no chapter and verse divisions. They were introduced to divide the text up into smaller bits in order to make it easier to read.
What were the prophets like? Back to TOC
It is tempting to liken a Hebrew prophet to the class clown in high school, because it seems that some were definitely characters who would do anything to attract attention or to make a point. Isaiah, for example, walked around buck-naked for three years as a sign of exile to the Egyptians and Ethiopians (Isaiah 20:2−4). The book of Jeremiah records a number of instances where the prophet used signs such as walking around wearing a yoke (27:2) and Hosea married a prostitute (1:2). Obviously, we cannot draw too many conclusions about a person’s character from the report of isolated incidents, but there are some things that we can learn from their lives, circumstances, and the prophetic literature.
It would be misleading to paint the prophets as hyperactive, because there is just not enough information available to make a determination. However, given some of the exploits that are recorded and what can be gleaned from the activities of the early prophets, it is likely that at least some of the oracles delivered by the prophets were part of an ecstatic experience. The fact that a number of the prophets refer to having visions would lend support to this idea. Amos also offers a disclaimer that “I am no prophet, nor a prophet’s son; but I am a herdsman, and a dresser of sycamore trees, and the LORD took me from following the flock, and the LORD said to me, ‘Go, prophesy to my people Israel,’” which offers some evidence that there were certain cultural traditions and expectations associated with being a prophet.
Regardless of the way that oracles were communicated, generally speaking the biblical prophets must have been people of conviction and inner strength. Just as people in the last century that we might identify as being prophet-like—Martin Luther King Jr., Nelson Mandela—were not likely to win a popularity vote for their message at the time, neither were the Hebrew prophets. By definition, a prophet’s message goes against the grain of popular thought, and, when you go against the grain, there are bound to be some splinters. A great deal of the content of the prophetic literature is critical of the status quo; therefore, it was critical of those in power who allowed or enforced the maintaining of the status quo.
The circumstances in which the prophets found themselves would have been very similar to that of a modern day street-corner evangelist. Although there were occasions where some prophets had direct access to and spoke directly to the king (Isaiah 7:3; Amos 7:12−15), in many instances they would have prophesied in places where the street traffic was high such as the city gates or the temple in order to reach an audience. Presumably their messages met with various responses. Some were persuaded by the oratory while others were more militant in their rejection. Amos probably was not winning friends when he referred to the upper class as “cows” (4:1), and Jeremiah did not win many friends or influence many people by proclaiming that they were going to be taken into exile. Jeremiah was put in the stocks for his efforts (20:2) and later he was beaten and thrown into prison (37:15−16). Even today there are many people who complain about certain conditions within society, but normally it is a small minority who will take to the streets to protest. It is even harder to lead a protest of one.
According to the prophets, the reason for their conviction and their ability to proclaim an unpopular me
